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Achaemenid royal inscriptions

The Behistun inscription, the longest and perhaps the most famous of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions.

The Achaemenid royal inscriptions are the surviving inscriptions in cuneiform script from the Achaemenid Empire, dating from the 6th to 4th century BCE (reigns of Cyrus II to Artaxerxes III). These inscriptions are primary sources for the history of the empire, along with archaeological evidence and the administrative archives of Persepolis. However, scholars are reliant on Greek sources (such as Herodotus) to reconstruct much of Achaemenid history.[1]

The Achaemenid royal inscriptions differ from earlier Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions in their multilingualism, rhetorical style and their structure.[2] The inscriptions are mostly trilingual – in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, which use two separate scripts (Babylonian and Elamite use variants of the same cuneiform). When they appear together, the privileged position is usually occupied by the Old Persian inscription: at the top when arranged vertically, and in the middle when arranged horizontally.[2]

The initial decipherment of cuneiform was based on the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from Persepolis, later supplemented with the Behistun Inscription. Scholars deciphered the Old Persian cuneiform script first, followed by the Babylonian and Elamite language versions using the trilingual inscriptions.[3]

Overview

Map of the locations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions; modern boundaries are shown.

The trilingual inscriptions illustrate the multi-ethnic complexity of the Achaemenid Empire: Old Persian is an Indo-European language, Babylonian is a Semitic language, and Elamite is a language isolate. The three versions of the trilingual inscriptions are not exact translations of each other. Sometimes passages are added in one language version that do not appear in the other two. There are also differences in details when the text refers to specific people: the Old Persian version often emphasizes the rulers, the Elamite version the locations, and the Babylonian version the subject peoples, reflecting the different social classes that spoke each language.[2]

A few Achaemenid inscriptions are instead written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example in stelae found near the Suez Canal. Other hieroglyphic text has been found on crockery and pottery vessels that were made in Egypt but excavated at Persepolis, Susa, and possibly Babylonia. A statue of Darius I was also made in Egypt but brought to Susa.[2]

Imperial Aramaic is conspicuous by its absence from the inscriptions, despite it being the official language of the empire in later periods. There are a few isolated Aramaic characters on Achaemenid objects such as seals, weights and coins. The only royal inscription in Aramaic was found at Elephantine in Upper Egypt and is a copy of the Behistun inscription.[2]

In 1958 Richard Hallock compiled statistics on the length and numbers of the Elamite language versions of the royal inscriptions. The Behistun inscription is the longest inscription, whilst the other inscriptions are shorter and more repetitive. 44 Elamite texts are from the reign of Darius I, followed by 13 from that of Xerxes I, while the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Artaxerxes II have 7 texts each. Only two Elamite texts are from the reign of Cyrus II: the inscriptions CMa and CMc.[4]

Most of the inscriptions have been found in the Achaemenid heartlands (in Pasargadae, Persepolis, Naqsh-e Rostam) with smaller numbers in the wider empire (at Susa, Bisutun, Ganjnameh, Babylon). The only inscriptions outside of Iran are the Xerxes I inscription at Van, in eastern Anatolia, and some from the period of Cyrus II.[2]

The majority of the texts are found on royal monuments and statues, and many motifs are repeated. The inscriptions of Darius I were replicated by his successors, often with only small differences. Scholars have suggested that this was intended to emphasize the empire's continuity.[5]

Decipherment

Inscription XPc at Persepolis, on the southern side of the Palace of Darius. It is repeated three times, known as XPca, XPcb and XPcc. XPca and XPcc are facing each other towards the top of the antas (large pillars) on the left and right respectively; both have 15 lines in Old Persian, 14 lines in Elamite and 13 lines in Babylonian. XPcb is on the bottom wall alongside the carvings of Achaemenid soldiers, with 25 lines for each language version; Old Persian is in the middle, Elamite is on the right and Babylonian on the left.[6]
Main article: Decipherment of cuneiform

The decipherment of the Old Persian cuneiform script of the Achaemenids played a crucial role in the decipherment of the Babylonian and Elamite language versions and other cuneiform scripts in the Near East.[3] This decipherment was initially via names, or royal names, and the Avesta, which contains the Old Persian language in a developed form. The decipherment of the Achaemenid inscriptions can be divided into three phases.[7]

In a first step, the writing direction was found out and that the Achaemenid inscriptions are three different scripts with a common text. In 1620, García de Silva Figueroa dated the inscriptions of Persepolis to the Achaemenid period, identified them as Old Persian, and concluded that the ruins were the ancient residence of Persepolis. In 1621, Pietro della Valle specified the direction of writing from left to right. In 1762, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy found that an inscription in Persepolis resembled that found on a brick in Babylon. Carsten Niebuhr made the first copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis in 1778 and settled on three different types of writing, which subsequently became known as Niebuhr I, II and III. He was the first to discover the sign for a word division in one of the scriptures. Oluf Gerhard Tychsen was the first to list 24 phonetic or alphabetic values for the characters in 1798.[7]

The second phase, in which a first decipherment took place and correct values for a significant number of characters could be found, was initiated by Georg Friedrich Grotefend. He was the initial decipherer of Old Persian cuneiform. He was followed by Antoine-Jean Saint-Martin in 1822 and Rasmus Christian Rask in 1823, who was the first to decipher the name Achaemenides and the consonants m and n. Eugène Burnouf identified the names of various satrapies and the consonants k and z in 1833–1835. Christian Lassen contributed significantly to the grammatical understanding of the Old Persian language and the use of vowels. The decipherers used the short trilingual inscriptions from Persepolis and the inscriptions from Ganjnāme for their work.[7]

In a final step, the decipherment of the Behistun inscription was completed by Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks. Edward Hincks discovered that Old Persian is partly a syllabary.[7]

List of inscriptions

Designations

Achaemenid family tree

The designations or abbreviations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are based on the system introduced by Roland Grubb Kent in 1953.[8] Manfred Mayrhofer (1978), Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1985) and Rüdiger Schmitt (2000) have expanded and modified it. Rüdiger Schmitt's 2009 Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden is considered the modern reference work.[9]

The first letter of an inscription's designation does not designate the ruler or author, but the king whom the text expressly names, often right at the beginning in the nominative. The second capital letter designates the place of discovery and the third letter is an index used by scholars to distinguish multiple inscriptions from the same place.[8]

Summary

The Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project, part of the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus, currently contains 175 composite texts with 11,712 words.[10]

A 2021 list of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions counted 179 texts, from Darius I to Artaxerxes III.[11] This categorization places the "non-authentic" inscriptions (i.e. inscriptions are "genuine" and date from the Achaemenid period, but do not come from the king who is listed at the beginning of the inscriptions) under the king during whose reign they were produced. The best-known "non-authentic" inscriptions are AmHa and AsHa from Hamadan.[12]

Languages Darius I Xerxes I Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Total
D X A D2 A2 A3
Quadrilingual Persian, Babylonian, Elamite, Egyptian 1 15 5 21
Trilingual Persian, Babylonian, Elamite 62 24 1 1 4 1 93
Bilingual Persian, Elamite 4 4
Persian, Babylonian 1 1 2
Monolingual Persian 18 10 2 4 6 3 43
Babylonian 4 2 1 1 8
Elamite 3 4 7
Aramaic 1 1
93 52 10 5 14 5 179

List

Name King Discovery date Discovery place Language Publication
AmHa Ariaramnes 1930 Hamadan Old Persian [13]
AsHa Arsames 1920 Hamadan Old Persian [14]
Cyrus A Cyrus II 1850 Uruk Babylonian [15]
Cyrus B 1923 Ur Babylonian [16]
Cyrus Cylinder 1879 Babylon Babylonian [17]
CMa 1812 Pasargadae Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [18]
CMb 1928 Pasargadae Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [19]
CMc 1928 Pasargadae Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [20]
Zendan inscription 1952 Pasargadae Old Persian, Elamite [21]
CM-Fragment 1961–1963 Pasargadae Old Persian [22]
DB Darius I 1835 Behistun Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [23]
DB Aram 1906–1908 Elephantine Aramaic [24]
DEa 1851–1854 Elvend Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [25]
DHa 1926 Hamadan Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [26]
DNa 1843 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [27]
DNb 1843 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [28]
DNc 1848 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [29]
DNd 1848 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [30]
DNe 1848 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [31]
DNf 2001 Naqsch-e Rostam Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [32]
DPa 1737 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [33]
DPb 1704 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [34]
DPc 1664–1670 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [35]
DPd 1774–1778 Persepolis Old Persian [36]
DPe 1774–1778 Persepolis Old Persian [37]
DPf 1774–1778 Persepolis Elamite [38]
DPg 1774–1778 Persepolis Babylonian [39]
DPh 1933 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [40]
DSaa 1969/1970 Susa Babylonian [41]
DSab 1972 Susa Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, Egyptian [42]
DSf 1900 Susa Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [43]
DSq 1929 Susa Old Persian [44]
DSz 1969/1970 Susa Elamite [45]
XEa Xerxes I 1851–1854 Elvend Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [46]
XPa 1839 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [47]
XPb 1711 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [48]
XPc 1711 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [49]
XPd 1851–1854 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [50]
XVa 1827 Van Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [51]
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
A2Ha Artaxerxes II 1886 Hamadan Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [52]
A2Hb 1926 Hamadan Old Persian [53]
A2Hc 1948 Hamadan Old Persian [54]
A2Hd Hamadan
A2Sa 1849–1852 Susa Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [55]
A2Sb 1849–1852 Susa Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [56]
A2Sc 1890 Susa Old Persian [57]
A2Sd 1849–1852 Susa Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [58]
A3Pa Artaxerxes III 1851–1854 Persepolis Old Persian [59]
A3Pb 1930 Persepolis Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian [60]

Forgeries

Phial with forged inscription F 10

Forgeries from the Near East have been known since the 19th century. But it is only since the 1930s that products from Iran have flooded the art market, after illegal excavations in western Iran increased enormously. The actual "counterfeiting boom" took place after World War II until the Islamic Revolution. Fake art items were inscribed to increase the value of the item cause or to convey a supposed authenticity. The inscriptions were often copied from books in order to use them in abridged or modified form. They can be found on metal tablets, clay and stone tablets, figurative and similar objects, weapons, gems and seals. In total, Rüdiger Schmitt recorded 27 forged inscriptions.[12]

In 1953, Roland Grubb Kent listed the known forged inscriptions ("spurious inscriptions"), gave them the name Spurium (abbreviation Spur.) and provided them with an index (spur. a–h). Manfred Mayrhofer added to the list in 1978 (i-k). Rüdiger Schmitt gave them new names in 2007: F for forged and N for replica.[12]

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Howe, T.; Müller, S.; Stoneman, R. (2016). Ancient Historiography on War and Empire. Oxbow Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-78570-302-7. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Matthew W. Stolper: Achämenid Languages and Inscriptions. In: John E. Curtis, Nigel Tallis (Hrsg.): Forgotten Empire. The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press, Berkeley/ Los Angeles 2005, S. 18–24.
  3. ^ a b Mousavi, Ali (2012-03-14). "VI. PERSEPOLIS AND THE PUZZLE OF THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS". Persepolis. DE GRUYTER. pp. 113–122. doi:10.1515/9781614510338.113. In this way, the exploration of the ancient ruins at Persepolis proved to be one important key to the development of historical and archaeological studies in the first half of the nineteenth century.
  4. ^ Richard Hallock: Notes on Achaemenid Elamite. In: Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Band 17, 1958, S. 256.
  5. ^ Morris, I.; Scheidel, W. (2009). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution Series. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-19-537158-1. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  6. ^ "XPc". Livius. 2020-09-24. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
  7. ^ a b c d Sayce, A.H. (2019). The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions. Cambridge Library Collection - Archaeology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-08239-6. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
  8. ^ a b Roland Grubb Kent: Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. 2. revidierte Auflage (=American Oriental Series. Band 33). New Haven 1953 (babel.hathitrust.org, Digitalisat)
  9. ^ Rüdiger Schmitt: Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden. Editio minor mit deutscher Übersetzung. Reichert, Wiesbaden 2009. (Achaemenid royal inscriptions at the Internet Archive)
  10. ^ "Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project". The ARIo Project, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Historisches Seminar - Alte Geschichte. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  11. ^ Tavernier, Jan. "A list of the Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions by language". Phoenix (in French). 67. ISSN 0031-8329. Retrieved 2023-03-25.
  12. ^ a b c Schmitt, Rüdiger (2007). Pseudo-Altpersische Inschriften: Inschriftenfälschungen und moderne Nachbildungen in altpersischer Keilschrift (in German). Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-3964-5.
  13. ^ Herzfeld 1930, Schaeder 1930, Schaeder 1931, Herzfeld 1931a, Herzfeld 1932, Brandenstein 1932, Schaeder 1935, Herzfeld 1937, Herzfeld 1938, Sen 1941, Kent 1946, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  14. ^ Kent 1946, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  15. ^ Loftus 1850, Weißbach 1911a, Schott 1930, Schaudig 2001, Waters 2018
  16. ^ Gadd 1928, Walker 1981, Schaudig 2001, Waters 2018
  17. ^ Rawlinson 1880, Nies/Keiser 1920, Finkel 2013, Schaudig 2018
  18. ^ Morier 1812, Rawlinson 1847, Weißbach 1894, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978, Schaudig 2001
  19. ^ Herzfeld 1929, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Hallock 1958, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978
  20. ^ Herzfeld 1929, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Borger/Hinz 1959, Nylander 1967, Stronach 1978, Cool Root 1979, Schaudig 2001
  21. ^ Sami 1956, Borger/Hinz 1959, Cameron 1967, Stronach 1978, Mayrhofer 1978, Schaudig 2001
  22. ^ Stronach 1965, Lecoq 1974, Stronach 1978, Mayrhofer 1978, Schaudig 2001
  23. ^ Rawlinson 1846, Rawlinson 1849, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Jackson 1903, Jackson 1906, King/Thompson 1907, Weißbach 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Cameron 1951, Kent 1953, Voigtlander 1956, Cameron 1960, Vallat 1977, Voigtlander 1978, Greenfield/Porten 1982, Borger/Hinz 1984, Grillot-Susini/Herrenschmidt/Malbran-Labat 1993, Porten 1993, Malbran-Labat 1994, Lecoq 1997, Seidl 1999, Bae 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  24. ^ Mitchell, Christine (2017). "Berlin Papyrus P. 13447 and the Library of the Yehudite Colony at Elephantine". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 76 (1). University of Chicago Press: 139–147. doi:10.1086/690226. ISSN 0022-2968. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  25. ^ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Schulz 1840, Brugsch 1862/1863, de Morgan 1894–1905, Jackson 1906, Weißbach 1911a, Schaeder 1931, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  26. ^ Herzfeld 1926, Smith 1926, Weißbach 1927, Kent 1931b, Brandenstein 1932, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Frye 1963, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  27. ^ Westergaard 1844, Lassen 1845, Westergaard 1845, Hitzig 1847, Rawlinson 1847, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Norris 1855, Spiegel 1862, Kern 1869, Oppert 1870, Bezold 1882, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Friedrich 1928, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Grillot-Susini 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  28. ^ Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Hinz 1969, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Sims-Williams 1981, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  29. ^ Rawlinson 1850, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Perrot/Chipiez 1890, Maspero 1899, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Henkelman 2003, Schmitt 2009
  30. ^ Rawlinson 1850, Rawlinson 1851, Norris 1855, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1939, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Borger 1972, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Borger 2000, Henkelman 2003, Schmitt 2009
  31. ^ Rawlinson 1850, Norris 1855, Oppert 1859, Dieulafoy 1885, Weißbach 1911a, Weißbach 1911b, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1970, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  32. ^ Delshad/Doroodi 2019
  33. ^ De Bruyn 1737, Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Westergaard 1845a, Westergaard 1845b, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2009
  34. ^ De Bruyn 1737, Gobineau 1864, Dieulafoy 1890, Weißbach 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Benveniste 1951, Kent 1953, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  35. ^ Chardin 1740, Kämpfer 1712, De Bruyn 1737, Ouseley 1821, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Lassen 1845, Westergaard 1845b, Weißbach 1911a, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Shabazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Mitchell 2000, Schmitt 2009
  36. ^ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009, Schmitt 2020
  37. ^ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  38. ^ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Westergaard 1845a, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Vallat 1977, Shahbazi 1985, Grillot-Susini 1987, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  39. ^ Niebuhr 1774–1778, Westergaard 1845b, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  40. ^ Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Krefter 1971, Vallat 1977, Trümpelmann 1988, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  41. ^ Perrot 1971, Vallat 1986, Lecoq 1997, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  42. ^ Vallat 1974a, Vallat 1974b, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009, Yoyotte 2010
  43. ^ Scheil 1900, Scheil 1910, Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, König 1930, Bleichsteiner 1930, Weißbach 1931/1932, Herzfeld 1931b, Kent 1931b, Brandenstein 1932, Kent 1933, Scheil 1933, Herzfeld 1938, Scheil 1939, Hinz 1950, Kent 1953, Hinz 1971, Vallat 1972b, Steve 1974, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Mayrhofer 1981, Vallat 1983, Steve 1987, Grillot-Susini 1990, Caubet 1994, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999b, Rossi 2003, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  44. ^ Scheil 1929, Kent 1931a, Brandenstein 1932, Sen 1941, Hinz 1941, Kent 1953, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  45. ^ Perrot 1971, Vallat 1970, Vallat 1972b, Steve 1974, Vallat 1977, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  46. ^ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Burnouf 1836, Weißbach 1911a, Sen 1941, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Hinz 1979, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  47. ^ Rich 1839, Westergaard 1845a, Westergaard 1845b, Lassen 1845, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  48. ^ De Bruyn 1737, Niebuhr 1774–1778, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Herzfeld 1938, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Herrenschmidt 1983, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  49. ^ De Bruyn 1711, Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  50. ^ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Stolze 1882, Weißbach 1911a, Schmidt 1953, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Herrenschmidt 1983, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kozuh 2003, Schmitt 2009
  51. ^ Schulz 1840, Lassen 1845, Rawlinson 1847, Lehmann-Haupt 1900, Foy 1900, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Hinz 1979, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  52. ^ Dieulafoy 1893, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Knapton et al. 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  53. ^ Brandenstein 1932, Herzfeld 1928–1929, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Knapton et al. 2001, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  54. ^ Kent 1953, Yamauchi 1990, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  55. ^ Loftus 1857, Norris 1855, Weißbach 1891, Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, Brandenstein 1932, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Werba 2006, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  56. ^ Loftus 1857, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  57. ^ Dieulafoy 1890, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2009
  58. ^ Weißbach 1911a, Scheil 1929, Brandenstein 1932, Scheil 1933, Kent 1953, Vallat 1972a, Vallat 1977, Vallat 1979, Steve 1987, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Werba 2006, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  59. ^ Flandin/Coste 1851–1854, Oppert 1852, Tolman 1908, Weißbach 1911a, Kent 1953, Schmidt 1953, Shahbazi 1985, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Schmitt 2009
  60. ^ Davis 1932, Herzfeld 1938, Kent 1953, Vallat 1977, Mayrhofer 1978, Lecoq 1997, Schweiger 1998, Schmitt 1999a, Schmitt 2000, Kuhrt 2007, Calmeyer/Schmitt 2009, Schmitt 2009

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  • Joan G. Westenholz, Matthew W. Stolper: A stone jar with inscriptions of Darius I in four languages. (= Achaemenid Research on Texts and Archaeology. Band 2002.005) (academia.edu, Digitalisat)
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  • Niels Ludvig Westergaard: On the deciphering of the second Achaemenian or Median species of arrowheaded writing. In: Mémoires de la Société royale des antiquaires du Nord. Band 2, 1845. (archive.org, Digitalisat)
  • Edwin M. Yamauchi: Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids 1990, ISBN 0-8010-9899-8.
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Index: pl ar de en es fr it arz nl ja pt ceb sv uk vi war zh ru af ast az bg zh-min-nan bn be ca cs cy da et el eo eu fa gl ko hi hr id he ka la lv lt hu mk ms min no nn ce uz kk ro simple sk sl sr sh fi ta tt th tg azb tr ur zh-yue hy my ace als am an hyw ban bjn map-bms ba be-tarask bcl bpy bar bs br cv nv eml hif fo fy ga gd gu hak ha hsb io ig ilo ia ie os is jv kn ht ku ckb ky mrj lb lij li lmo mai mg ml zh-classical mr xmf mzn cdo mn nap new ne frr oc mhr or as pa pnb ps pms nds crh qu sa sah sco sq scn si sd szl su sw tl shn te bug vec vo wa wuu yi yo diq bat-smg zu lad kbd ang smn ab roa-rup frp arc gn av ay bh bi bo bxr cbk-zam co za dag ary se pdc dv dsb myv ext fur gv gag inh ki glk gan guw xal haw rw kbp pam csb kw km kv koi kg gom ks gcr lo lbe ltg lez nia ln jbo lg mt mi tw mwl mdf mnw nqo fj nah na nds-nl nrm nov om pi pag pap pfl pcd krc kaa ksh rm rue sm sat sc trv stq nso sn cu so srn kab roa-tara tet tpi to chr tum tk tyv udm ug vep fiu-vro vls wo xh zea ty ak bm ch ny ee ff got iu ik kl mad cr pih ami pwn pnt dz rmy rn sg st tn ss ti din chy ts kcg ve
Prefix: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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