Demographics of the United Kingdom

Demographics of the United Kingdom
Population pyramid in 2021
Population	67,596,281 (2022)[1]
Density	279/km2 (720/sq mi) (2022)[1]
Growth rate	0.85% (2022)[2]
Birth rate	10.3/1,000 population (2021)[3]
Death rate	10.0/1,000 population (2021)[3]
Life expectancy
• male	78.6 years of age (2020–2022)[4]
• female	82.6 years of age (2020–2022)[4]
Fertility rate	1.53 (2021)[3]
Infant mortality rate	4.0 deaths/1,000 live births (2021)[3]
Net migration rate	2.9 migrants/1,000 population (2024 est.)[5]
Age structure
0–14 years	17.2% (2022)[2]
15–64 years	64.0% (2022)[2]
65 and over	18.8% (2022)[2]
Sex ratio
Total	0.99 male(s)/female (2024 est.)[5]
At birth	1.05 male(s)/female (2024 est.)[5]
Under 15	1.05 male(s)/female (2024 est.)[5]
65 and over	0.85 male(s)/female (2024 est.)[5]
Nationality
Nationality	British citizen
Major ethnic	White (83.05%) [a][6][7][8] British (75.98%) Polish (1.26%) Romanian (0.83%) Italian (0.44%) German (0.43%) Other (4.11%)
Minor ethnic	Asian (8.60%) Indian (2.88%) Pakistani (2.48%) Bangladeshi (0.97%) Chinese (0.75%) Other (1.52%) Black (3.71%) Black Caribbean (0.94%) Nigerian (0.44%) Other (2.33%) Multiracial (2.68%) Mixed White-Asian (0.73%) Mixed White-Black (0.37%) Other (1.58%) Other (1.96%)
Language
Official	English
Spoken	Scots · Irish · Scottish Gaelic · Welsh · Cornish · Manx

The population of the United Kingdom was estimated at 67,596,281 in 2022.^[1] It is the 21st most populated country in the world and has a population density of 279 people per square kilometre (720 people/sq mi), with England having significantly greater density than Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.^[1] Almost a third of the population lives in south east England, which is predominantly urban and suburban, with 8,866,180 people in the capital city, London, whose population density was 5,640 inhabitants per square kilometre (14,600/sq mi) in 2022.^[1]

The population of the UK has undergone demographic transition—that is, the transition from a (typically) pre-industrial population, with high birth and mortality rates and slow population growth, through a stage of falling mortality and faster rates of population growth, to a stage of low birth and mortality rates with, again, lower rates of growth. This growth through 'natural change' has been accompanied in the past two decades by growth through net immigration into the United Kingdom, which since 1999 has exceeded natural change.^[9]

The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99% at age 15 and above)^[10] is attributable to universal state education, introduced at the primary level in 1870 (Scotland 1872, free 1890^[11]) and at the secondary level in 1900. Parents are obliged to have their children educated from the ages of 5 to 16 years. In England, 16–17-year olds should remain in education, employment or training (for example, in the form of A-Levels, vocational training, and apprenticeships), until the age of 18.^[12]

The United Kingdom's population is predominantly White British (75.98% at the 2021 Census), but due to migration from Commonwealth nations, Britain has become ethnically diverse. The second and third largest non-white racial groups are Asian British at 8.6% of the population, followed by Black British people at 3.71%.

The main language of the country is British English. Some Celtic languages, namely Scottish Gaelic and Irish, are still spoken by minorities in Scotland and Northern Ireland, respectively, and Cornish has been revived to a limited degree in Cornwall; but the predominant language in all these areas is English. Welsh is widely spoken as a first language in parts of North and West Wales, and to lesser extent in South East Wales, where English is the dominant first language.^{[citation needed]}

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million at the end of the second century AD. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.^[13] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century.^[13] Roman Britain's capital city, Londinium, is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000.^[14][15]

Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain, Germanic tribes from continental Europe such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes began a period of significant migration to the southeastern part of the island, notably bringing their language, Old English.^[16] Nevertheless, the overall population is believed to have fallen precipitously due to political upheavals and plagues.^[17][18] By the time of the compilation of the Domesday Book in the eleventh century, there may have between 1.25 and 2 million people living in England.^[19] Though the Domesday Book did not count the English population, it has been regarded as one of the first attempts to produce a census of the country.^[20]

Between the years of 1086 and 1750, the English population fluctuated in size due to civil war, famines and plagues.^[9] By the end of the 13th century, the population was estimated to have reached between four and six million people, but a combination of factors such as widespread famine and disease in the following century collapsed the population dramatically. An agricultural crisis in 1315 to 1322 and the Black Death in 1348 to 1350 collapsed the population by over a third of its pre-existing number, and the growth rate.^[9] By 1377, the population was estimated on a poll-tax of all people aged 14 and over, depending on the population amount of those under 14, to be around 2.2 million to 3.1 million.^[9]

Periods of instability over the 15th century such as the War of the Roses caused the population to, while grow, increase at a slowed pace.^[9] The general factors behind the slow increase was a high mortality rate due to war, less marriages within the population and late marriages, keeping fertility levels lower than they should have been for the time and a net emigration of English people out of the country.^[9] However, in contrast to the preceding century, by the 16th century, this situation has elevated itself due to political stability under the Tudor monarchy and little civil unrest which would have resulted in a higher mortality rate.^[9] While this was overturned with the English Civil War in 17th century, it allowed the population to grow at a faster pace, causing the population of England to reach a pre-collapse total of 5.74 million by 1750.^[9] In Scotland, population growth was not to the same extent as it was in England, which resulted in being significantly lower in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, which is often ascribed to similar factors halting it such as a high mortality rate, especially for infants, and later marriage and childbearing patterns.^[9] Ireland on the other hand before the 19th century consistently had rapid population growth, which has been ascribed to higher fertility rates and earlier marriage than England. Furthermore, the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century also affected the population total of Scotland with an estimated 100,000 Scots migrating to Ulster, additionally, the Jacobite rebellion in 1745 also caused significant emigration.^[9] The estimated population total of Scotland in 1691 was 1.23 million.^[9]

The impetus to collect population data was reinforced due to food supply concerns and war against France in the late 18th century and the beginning of the early 19th century.^[9] In 1800, the Census Act was passed, authorising the first modern census in British history to be conducted.^[9]

The first Census in 1801 revealed that the population of Great Britain was 10.5 million.^[21] Of this, England's population had grown to 8.3 million, Wales population rested at 0.6 million while Scotland had a population of 1.6 million.^[9] In Ireland, the population rested at an estimate of between 4.5 and 5.5 million inhabitants.^[22][23] Since 1801, a census has been conducted every decade, in Ireland this was conducted for the first time in 1821.^[9]

During the Industrial Revolution, the demographic transition started to occur within the United Kingdom, going from a pre-industrial society demographically to one of an industrialised society. By 1841 Census, the population of England and Wales rested at 15.9 million,^[9][24] doubling in the space of 40 years, for Ireland 8.2 million^[9][24][25] and for Scotland 2.6 million.^[9][24] This slowed rate of growth for Scotland may be attributed to higher net emigration of Scottish people out of the nation, and two typhus epidemics in 1837 and 1847.^[9]

Factors often associated with the beginning of the demographic transition began to change dramatically as well, which contributed to the rapid increase. For example, Child mortality decreased dramatically, the proportion of children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.^[26] General mortality was thought to have declined as well, especially after 1850 as well as an increased birth rate caused the English population to sustain itself in the second phase of the transition from 1750 to 1870.^[9]

Due to this, in the second half of the 19th century the population of England continued to grow quickly from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901.^[9] This rapid growth was also seen in the other constituent nations. In Wales, the population increased from 0.6 million in 1801 to 2 million in 1901, in Scotland, the population increased from 1.6 million to 4.5 million in 1901. In contrast however and due to the Great Irish Famine, which began in the 1840s, caused the deaths of 1 million Irish people, and caused well over a million to emigrate.^[9][27] Mass emigration became entrenched as a result of the famine, and Ireland's population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 to 3.2 million in 1901.^[9][28] However this massive population collapse did not effect Northern Ireland to the same extent, due to being more industrialised and urbanised and while the population did decline, it had recovered itself by the beginning of the 20th century.^[9] This prolonged period of emigration and net population decline in Irish history was only reversed by the middle of the 20th century.^[28]

By the 1870s, the total fertility rate of the UK population declined from 4.88 children per woman in 1871, to 2.4 by 1921, representing a transition to the third stage of the demographic transition.^[9] Traditional means of birth control were used such as abstinence and withdrawal facilitated the collapse of the birth rate,^[9] this was also hastened by the 1930s by more modern methods of contraception which were beginning to be used with increased acceptance.^[9] From 1840 to 1930 there was a net emigration of English people out of the country which resulted in the population being stunted in the capacity it could have grown to.^[9]

During the first half of the 20th century, the United Kingdom began to approach the 4th stage of the demographic transition.^[9] The end of the First World War and the loss of lives of troops, coupled with an influenza outbreak is estimated to have caused the death of upwards of 900,000 people in the United Kingdom.^[9] This as a consequence shrunk the male population of the Lost Generation and altered the sex ratio, which slowed the growth rate of the population down.^[9] By the end of the Second World War, this transition had been completed and the society had a low but fluctuating birth rate, a low death rate and a slowed growth rate of the population.^[9] In 1948, the British Nationality Act was signed which allowed the access of the peoples of the British Empire's colonies to migrate to the country being classed in nationality as the same as a native of the United Kingdom. This law, while an unintentional side-effect, led to the start of modern immigration to the United Kingdom.

The move into the 4th stage also took place during major social change in the United Kingdom throughout the 1960s.^[9] Liberalisation of society during the decade led to the 1967 Abortion Act which legalised abortion in the United Kingdom for the first time, and the 1969 Divorce Reform Act, which liberalised the circumstances under which someone can get a divorce.^[9] Between these years, the population fluctuated; from the 1950s onwards the population increased through natural growth but by the time of the mid-1970s the population decreased due to emigration, which took net migration to a negative, and deaths exceeding births.^[9] For the first time in 1973, the birth rate of the country fell below replacement level, due to the previous liberalising acts.^[29] By the 1980s, the decline of population growth had recovered to an extent due to a reversal of net emigration.^[9]

In the 1990s, international migration began to contribute more proportionally to population growth,^[9] and by 1998 this had passed natural increase as the main provider of growth.^[9] Liberalisation of immigration rules under the new government allowed rapid increase of the number of migrants arriving, quadrupling the number from a net migration rate of 50,000 a year, to 200,000 a year.^[30]

By the beginning of the 21st century, the population of the United Kingdom rested at a total of 59,113,000 people. In each constituent nation, the population of England was 49,449,700, Scotland had a population of 5,064,200, Wales had a population of 2,910,200 and Northern Ireland a population of 1,689,300.^[9] Increased international migration which began to rapidly increase at the end of the 20th century also has brought increased ethnic heterogenization to the British population, not only in ethnicity and race, but also in country of birth. In 2001, the White British population was registered to be 88.52% of the total population, but by 2011, this proportion of the population had dropped to 81.88%, with other ethnic groups either rising by 50% of their respective total population in 2001 or doubling entirely.

Such rapid immigration growth boosted population growth in the United Kingdom. In 2011, the population sat at around 63 million people.

The population of the UK in the last recorded census in 2011 was 63 million, of whom 31 million were male and 32 million female. The 2011 census recorded the population of England as 53.0 million, Scotland as 5.3 million, Wales as 3.1 million, and Northern Ireland as 1.8 million.^[31] At the last recorded population estimate, it was estimated that the UK population was at a total of 67,081,234 people.

There are 13 urban areas that exceed 500,000 inhabitants: they are centred on London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds and Bradford, Southampton and Portsmouth, Sheffield, Liverpool, Leicester, Manchester, Belfast, Bristol, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Nottingham.^[32]

According to the World Population Review,^[33] in 2019 there was:

• One birth every 39 seconds
• One death every 52 seconds
• A net gain of one person every minute
• One net immigrant every 3 minutes

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

^[b]

Population distribution across the country

Part	Population (mid-2020)[34]	Of total population (%)	Area (km2 (mi2))[35]	Of total area (%)	Population density (per km2 (per mi2))
England	56,550,138	84.3%	130,309 (50,313)	53.7%	434 (1,124)
Scotland	5,466,000	8.2%	77,911 (30,082)	32.1%	70 (181)
Wales	3,169,586	4.7%	20,736 (8,006)	8.5%	153 (396)
Northern Ireland	1,895,510	2.8%	13,793 (5,326)	5.7%	137 (355)
United Kingdom	67,081,234	100%	242,749 (93,726)	100%	274 (710)

• Population across constituent countries over time
• 
  England
• 
  Scotland
• 
  Wales
• 
  Northern Ireland

The following table shows the total UK population estimated at census dates. Pre 1901 figures include the whole of Ireland, whereas from 1901 onwards only the population of Northern Ireland is included.

United Kingdom population at census dates^[36][37][38]

Intercensal period	Population at start of period	Average annual numbers of					Population density at start of period (per km2)
		Overall change	Births	Deaths	Net natural change	Net migration etc.
1851–1861	27,368,800	154,910	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	87
1861–1871	28,917,900	256,680	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	92
1871–1881	31,484,700	344,980	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	100
1881–1891	34,934,500	286,790	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	111
1891–1901	37,802,400	373,580	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	Un­known	120
1901–1911	38,237,000	385,000	1,091,000	624,000	467,000	−82,000	156
1911–1921	42,082,000	195,000	975,000	689,000	286,000	−92,000	172
1921–1931	44,027,000	201,000	824,000	555,000	268,000	−67,000	180
1931–1951	46,038,000	213,000	793,000	603,000	190,000	22,000	188
1951–1961	50,225,000	258,000	839,000	593,000	246,000	12,000	205
1961–1971	52,807,000	312,000	962,000	638,000	324,000	−12,000	216
1971–1981	55,928,000	42,000	736,000	666,000	69,000	−27,000	229
1981–1991	56,357,000	108,000	757,000	655,000	103,000	5,000	231
1991–2001	57,439,000	161,000	731,000	631,000	100,000	61,000	235
2001–2011	59,113,000	324,000	722,000	588,000	134,000	191,000	242
2011–2021	63,182,000	—	—	—	—	—	259

Population density calculated on:

• Pre–1901: 243,820 km² total land area for the United Kingdom plus 70,273 km² land area of the Republic of Ireland.
• Post–1901: its current boundaries.

The UK government first began publishing population projections for the country in the 1920s under the Government Actuary's Department (GAD) which were mainly produced to be used for long-term financial estimates for pensions and other schemes of social insurance.^[39] However, since the Second World War, population projections have taken an expanded role in all areas of influencing government policy. The GAD produced population projections every year from 1955 to 1979 and then switched it to every 2 years up to 1991. The Office for National Statistics took control of producing population projections for the country in 2006.^[39]

The British Office for National Statistics' 2016-based National Population Projections indicated that, if recent trends continue, the UK's population would increase by 3.6 million between mid-2016 and mid-2026. This represents an average annual growth rate of 0.5%. Over the same period, the population of England is projected to grow by 5.9%; for Wales, this figure is 3.1%, while for Scotland and Northern Ireland the figures are 3.2% and 4.2% respectively. These projections did not allow for any possible effects of the UK leaving the European Union.^[40]

Since 1838, it has been compulsory to register a birth or death in the United Kingdom.^[41]

First official data on the fertility rate of the country was first made available in 1938,^[41] However estimates of the total fertility rate (TFR) can be made back all the way till 1541.^[42]

The fertility rate of the country before the 19th century maintained itself at an average of around 5 children per woman. This fertility rate within the United Kingdom has been falling since 1870, when the country began into transition into the 3rd stage of the demographic transition.^{[43][41][29][44][45]} This transition represents the change in reproductive strategy from how many children a mother 'needs' to more of how many she 'wants' and a substitution of quality over quantity in the offspring produced.^[46][47] From the 1880s onwards, the birth rate began to decline rapidly from the levels it had previous sustained itself at.^[47] In England this crude birth rate decline represented a 44% decrease over a period from 1875 to 1920.^[47]

A number of factors have been argued to have contributed to this ranging from four broad spectrums of biological, technological changes and developments in the society, socio-economic reasons and cultural considerations.^[44] In the context of the Industrial Revolution, a large number of socio-economic developments occurred; large scale urbanisation of the population caused mass internal movements of people to high density population centres, income per capita of citizens rose significantly especially in the last half of the 19th century, coupled with large scale economic growth improved the livelihoods of the working and middle classes of the United Kingdom, this growth in the standard of living led also to the collapse of mortality rates, which had been in decline since the early 18th century and more especially the infant mortality.^[45][47][44] This development came about with the decline of child labour at the same time as well which meant there was less of a need for a quantity of children to uphold the household economically,^[45][47][44] educational quality of the country rose during the same time period which meant that children held more economical potential through educated labour means.^[44]

The decline and equalling out of the gender gap in terms of place in the workforce meant that women were beginning in the 19th century to become a larger part of the workforce which also contributed to the birth rate decline.^[45][47][44]

Improvements in public diets and nutritional quality increases, which are linked to biological factors such as a decline in lactation, have also been included as a potential factor in the decline of the fertility rate.^[44] Technological developments within the society also began to have an effect; contraceptive use become somewhat usable on a mass scale in the latter half of the 19th century due to technological developments in the production of rubber.^[44] Abortion, while illegal during the 19th century, was also used by women, however to what extent at the time is unknown.^[44]

Cultural considerations such as decline in religious adherence (albeit little data on this matter during the 19th century) have also been considered as reasons.^[44] While these factors altogether are debated by demographers as to which were more important than each other, it is generally accepted that due to these factors overall, mothers could begin to invest more time and nurture 'quality' into their offspring rather than having an increased 'quantity' of children that were needed in the past for various such reasons, and that this development led to the decrease of the total fertility rate.^[46]

By 1914, the birthrate sat at around 2.88 children per woman, however by 1918 had collapsed proportionally by almost 50%^[48] due to World War One and sank to 2.03 children.^[49][42] In the post-World War One period, while the birthrate of the country boomed at the very end of the war reaching a peak of 3.08 children in 1920,^[49] this began to endure a rapid decline and had slumped to historic lows by the 1930s, for the first time in the country's history falling below a replacement level fertility rate.^[41][29] This did not recover in-till the end of the Second World War in 1945.

In the post-World War Two period, the fertility rate of the country boomed once again, bringing itself out of the below replacement level in the 1930s to levels not seen since the late 19th century. This peaked in 1964, with a TFR of 2.95.^[50][51] However, by 1973, the fertility rate of the country collapsed again below replacement, and has not since in the present day reached a replacement level again.^[41] However population issues such as the sub-replacement level fertility rate have often been categorised as something in which the government does not view as a major issue.^[29] Little incentives were made and have been made to increase the birth rate throughout the UK's post war period.^[29] However compared to other countries in continental Western European standards, the United Kingdom managed to retain a seemingly 'high' fertility rate.^[29]

Family planning policies were enacted during the 1970s due to concerns of rapid population growth during the 1960s.^[29] The 1973 NHS Reorganisation Act is an example of such policies, within this act family planning advice and supplies were first issued to the public.^[29] Over this time period, with previous liberalising acts such as the Abortion Act and the Divorce Reform Act, and scientific developments such as increased access to contraceptive methods to reduce pregnancies, such as the contraceptive pill, it is generally ascribed that these social changes were the major contributors to the decline of the fertility rate below replacement level in the latter half of the 20th century.^[29] With these changes also, pre-marital conceptions fell to 1950 levels by the late 1970s.^[29] This pattern of decline of the birth rate is similar to other European countries.^[29]

The government's position was further presented and then re-iterated in 1984 at the UN Conference on Population in Mexico;

The United Kingdom('s) government does not pursue a population policy in the sense of actively trying to influence the overall size of the population, its age-structure, or the components of change except in the field of immigration. Nor has it expressed a view about the size of population, or the age-structure, that would be desirable. ...The current level of births has not been the cause of general anxiety. The prevailing view is that decisions about fertility and childbearing are for people themselves to make, but that it is proper for government to provide individuals with the information and the means necessary to make their decisions effective. To this end, the government provides assistance with family planning as part of the National Health Service. The ‘ageing’ of the population does raise social and economic issues. However, it is believed that these will prove manageable; and also, to a degree, that society will adapt....’^[29]

In 2003, Right to Request was setup which allowed the parents of small children to request flexible working times which included shorter working hours for parents to care for their children.^[29] However, although a majority of requests for Right to Request are accepted, a report in 2006 found that its impact was negligible as mothers tended to switch employers to get reduced hours regardless.^[29]

Due to migration beginning in the late 90s and especially during the 2000s lead to the overall total fertility rate of the country to rise by 0.1 in the period of 2004 to 2011.^[29]

In 2012, the UK's total fertility rate (TFR) was 1.92 children per woman,^[52] below the replacement rate, which in the UK is 2.075.^[53] In 2001, the TFR was at a record low of 1.63, but it then increased every year until it reached a peak of 1.96 in 2008, before decreasing again.^[52] In 2012 and 2013, England and Wales's TFR decreased to 1.85.^[52][54] In Scotland however TFR is lower: it decreased from 1.75 in 2010 to 1.67 in 2012.^[52] Northern Ireland has the highest TFR in the UK, standing at 2.02 in 2010 and 2.03 in 2012.^[52]

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

Total fertility rate (TFR) from 1552 to 1899
Years[42]
1552	1556	1560	1565	1570	1575	1580	1590	1595	1600	1605	1610	1615	1620	1625	1630	1640	1650
5.12	4.78	4.7	5.31	4.64	4.48	4.62	4.25	4.47	4.63	4.79	4.47	4.51	4.78	4.35	4.45	4.71	3.49
1660	1665	1670	1675	1680	1690	1695	1700	1705	1710	1715	1720	1725	1730	1735	1740	1750	1755
3.83	4.1	3.97	3.75	3.97	4.29	4.37	4.39	4.37	3.79	4.25	4.16	4.51	4.28	4.94	4.58	4.73	4.64
1760	1765	1770	1775	1780	1785	1790	1795	1797	1799	1800	1801	1802	1803	1804	1805	1806	1807
4.56	4.81	4.98	4.96	4.9	5.09	5.35	5.21	5.4	5.11	4.97	4.6	5.3	5.61	5.65	5.55	5.49	5.45
1808	1809	1810	1811	1812	1813	1814	1815	1816	1817	1818	1819	1820	1821	1822	1823	1824	1825
5.4	5.24	5.36	5.43	5.31	5.45	5.46	6.02	5.73	5.69	5.54	5.45	5.4	5.55	5.69	5.54	5.42	5.38
1826	1827	1828	1829	1830	1831	1832	1833	1834	1835	1836	1837	1838	1839	1840	1841	1842	1843
5.36	5.07	5.23	4.85	4.83	4.78	4.78	5	4.89	4.83	4.86	4.79	4.78	4.93	4.9	4.89	4.83	4.82
1844	1845	1846	1847	1848	1849	1850	1851	1852	1853	1854	1855	1856	1857	1858	1859	1860	1861
4.83	4.75	4.9	4.58	4.71	4.78	4.85	4.94	4.94	4.78	4.89	4.85	4.94	4.9	4.79	4.97	4.86	4.88
1862	1863	1864	1865	1866	1867	1868	1869	1870	1871	1872	1873	1874	1875	1876	1877	1878	1879
4.92	4.94	4.96	4.94	4.92	4.94	4.97	4.82	4.88	4.85	4.89	4.94	4.93	4.92	4.9	4.89	4.88	4.81
1880	1881	1882	1883	1884	1885	1886	1887	1888	1889	1890	1891	1892	1893	1894	1895	1896	1897
4.75	4.68	4.62	4.55	4.47	4.39	4.32	4.24	4.16	4.11	4.06	4	3.95	3.9	3.84	3.79	3.73	3.68
1898	1899
3.62	3.58

• Birth statistics
• 
  Mean age of mother by birth order in England and Wales
• 
  Mean age of parents at birth in England and Wales
• 
  Stillbirth rate in England and Wales
• 
  Live births by age group in England and Wales
• 
  Percentage of women childless by age 30 in England and Wales by mother's year of birth
• 
  Average number of children by year of birth of the mothers in England and Wales
• 
  Percentage of births born outside of wedlock in England and Wales
• 
  Conception rate per 1000 women by age groups in England and Wales
• 
  Teenage conception rate per 1000 women in England and Wales

The first available data on when a mother gives birth for the first time was in 1920.^[41]

The reduction of the total fertility rate of the United Kingdom has also had an effect on the mean age in which a mother gives birth to her first child.^[50]

The age in which a mother gives birth to her first child has changed depending on the time period, but since the 1970s the age in which someone gives birth has been trending upwards.^[50]

Mean age of childbearing^[41][50]

Year	Mean age of childbearing
1920	25.6
1941	23.8
1959	25.7
1960	27.8
1965	27.1
1970	26.3
1975	26.5
1980	26.9
1985	27.3
1990	27.7
2018	29

The reduction of the fertility rate has also had an effect on the general family size of mothers in the United Kingdom, with the two being interlinked with each other.^[50] The family size of the average UK family can be estimated for a "completed family size" (CFS), which is an estimate of the amount of children a woman has birthed by the end of her childbearing years.^[41]

Family size within the UK has shifted towards two or one children in recent decades, rather than in the past when larger family sizes were more prominent and sought after.^[50] This pattern is similar to other European countries, where couples are having fewer children.^[50] Increasingly, there are also more couples who are completely childless; this has been increasing since the 1950s.^[50][55]

Development of family size distribution (percentages)^[41][50]

No. of children	Years
	1920	1925	1930	1935	1940	1945	1950	1955	1960
0	21	17	13	12	11	10	14	17	21
1	21	22	18	15	13	13	12	12	12
2	27	28	30	32	37	43	43	40	35
3	16	17	19	21	22	21	20	20	21
4 or more	15	16	20	20	17	13	11	11	11
Average family size (Completed family size of all women)	2	2.12	2.35	2.42	2.36	2.17	2.03	2.02	1.95

Life expectancy has increased in the United Kingdom since the 18th century due to precipitate declines in child mortality, see below, and from relatively minor improvements in healthcare. A life expectancy of 40, the historical norm, does not mean that person is likely to die at 40 years old but rather when he or she is very old or very young; much in line with a bathtub curve.

At the start of the 20th century, the life expectancy at birth was only 45.6 years.^[56]

By 1950, life expectancy at birth had risen to 68.6 years.^[56] During the latter half of the century, further factors influenced the increase of life expectancy: diseases and the improvement of healthcare in the 1950s, decline in smoking in the mid-1970s and improvements in treating heart disease in the 1990s contributed to its decline.^[57]

At the start of the 21st century, the life expectancy at birth was 77.8 years.^[56]

In 2011 the life expectancy at birth of the UK was around 80.4 years,^[56] but the rate of increase has been stalling.^[57][58][59] Potential factors behind this may be austerity measures imposed in the beginning of the 2010s,^[59][60] which coincidentally since then mortality rates have slowed down in decline^[61] or older people dying off at faster rates than expected.^[61] On the topic of austerity measures, Professor Richard Faragher has said that "It is possible to have high or rising life expectancy during austerity, as is the case in Japan. Similarly, you can have rising life expectancy despite high levels of inequality – this was the case in Britain from 1900–1950."^[61] but noted that austerity measures to social services like the NHS, especially social care support for the elderly may be causing a stalling of life expectancy increase due to a decreased quality of life for older generations.^[59][61]

Life expectancy from 1543 to 2015
Years[62][56]
1543	1548	1553	1558	1563	1568	1573	1578	1583	1588	1593	1603	1608	1613	1618	1623	1628	1633
33.9	38.8	39.6	22.4	36.7	39.7	41.1	41.6	42.7	37.1	38.1	38.5	39.6	36.8	40.3	33.4	39.7	39.7
1638	1643	1648	1653	1658	1663	1668	1673	1678	1683	1688	1693	1698	1703	1713	1718	1723	1728
34.0	36.3	39.7	39.1	33.0	33.3	33.5	37.4	32.4	31.3	35.9	36.5	38.1	38.5	36.9	35.8	35.5	25.3
1733	1738	1743	1748	1753	1758	1763	1768	1773	1778	1783	1788	1793	1798	1803	1808	1813	1818
36.3	35.3	34.3	36.5	39.8	38.1	35.4	36.2	39.1	37.7	35.8	39.0	37.9	38.9	40.0	40.6	41.3	40.8
1823	1828	1833	1838	1842	1843	1844	1845	1846	1847	1848	1849	1850	1851	1852	1853	1854	1855
40.5	41.4	40.9	40.6	41.0	41.6	41.2	42.2	40.2	38.5	39.9	37.7	42.8	41.0	40.4	40.0	39.5	40.7
1856	1857	1858	1859	1860	1861	1862	1863	1864	1865	1866	1867	1868	1869	1870	1871	1872	1873
42.5	40.9	39.5	40.4	41.9	41.6	42.1	40.4	39.6	39.8	40.1	42.0	41.7	41.3	40.6	41.1	42.7	43.3
1874	1875	1876	1877	1878	1879	1880	1881	1882	1883	1884	1885	1886	1887	1888	1889	1890	1891
42.1	41.5	42.7	43.7	42.0	43.5	43.0	45.1	44.0	44.0	43.6	44.6	44.6	45.1	46.3	45.9	44.1	44.4
1892	1893	1894	1895	1896	1897	1898	1899	1900	1901	1902	1903	1904	1905	1906	1907	1908	1909
45.6	44.7	48.3	45.4	47.1	46.4	46.1	45.2	45.6	46.9	48.3	49.5	48.1	49.9	49.6	50.6	51.0	51.7
1910	1911	1912	1913	1914	1915	1916	1917	1918	1919	1920	1921	1922	1923	1924	1925	1926	1927
53.3	51.2	54.3	53.4	53.2	51.2	54.2	54.2	47.3	54.3	57.3	58.1	57.0	59.3	58.1	58.4	59.6	59.0
1928	1929	1930	1931	1932	1933	1934	1935	1936	1937	1938	1939	1940	1941	1942	1943	1944	1945
59.9	57.6	60.8	60.0	60.5	60.6	61.3	62.0	61.8	62.3	63.2	63.6	60.9	61.4	64.0	64.0	64.8	65.8
1946	1947	1948	1949	1950
66.3	66.3	68.4	68.1	68.6
1950–55			1955–60			1960–65			1965–70			1970–75			1975–80
69.4			70.6			71.0			71.7			72.3			73.0
1980–85			1985–90			1990–95			1995–2000			2000–05			2005–10
74.2			75.1			76.3			77.2			78.4			79.7
2010–15
81.0

Infant mortality has been on the decline since the Second Industrial Revolution, although the majority of the decline came around from the start to the end of the 20th century.^{[63][64][65][66]} In raw terms for example, infant mortality in England sat around 151 deaths to 1000 live births in 1901 but by the end of the century it had plummeted down to only 6 deaths per 1000 births.^[64]

There are two general lines of thought which are usually taken from into analysing the decline of infant mortality rates, the first line of thought comes from social historians, who ascribe the decline of infant mortality to social phenomenons of the time such as the need for a healthy population for the sake of the nation's fighting capabilities and political issues surrounding women.^[63] The second line of thought comes from demographers themselves which more or less ascribe the decline of infant mortality itself more to the general decline of mortality altogether in the society than any particular reason why.^[63]

Physical unfitness during the Boer War came into national prominence as many recruits came back to be too medically unfit for service.^[66][65] With this, In 1904, the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration was published^[67][65][66] which listed large amounts of details of the failings of the British population, and for that matter government, in sustaining a healthy population.

The current rate of infant mortality in the United Kingdom is roughly around 3.82 deaths per 1,000 live births.^[5]

Interlinked with fertility and mortality, The age structure of the United Kingdom has varied with how rates of fertility and mortality have changed throughout the country's history. Due to the transition to an industrialised society, the United Kingdom has also undergone a 'demographic transition': that is to say, that it has gone from a high birth rate, high mortality rate society to a low birth rate, low mortality rate society over the space of two centuries.

Before the 18th century, the United Kingdom retained an age structure universal to societies in the first stage of the transition theory, with high fertility rates and high mortality rates,^[9] in the late 18th century, the Industrial Revolution began, kickstarting the country's transition into the second phase: mortality rates declined but birth rates stayed at the same level;^[9] by 1870, the country had begun to transition into the third phase:^[9] the birth rate began to decline from around near 5 children per woman to below replacement level in the 1930s.^[9] The fourth phase of the transition began in the 1960s, when the fertility rate rose, and peaked during the middle of the decade, and then collapsed by 1973 to a below replacement level rate. Since then, the rate has not risen to an above replacement level fertility rate; this has resulted in a population which is currently ageing:^[9] in 2007, for the first time in the country's history, there were more people over the age of 60 than there were under the age of 16.^[68]

Peaks and bands within the population represent different periods in which people were born, for example, a large peak of people in particularly for those aged 70–74 born following the Second World War and a wide band for those aged 50–59, born during the 1960s baby boom. Those aged 80 upwards would have been born in the 1930s baby dearth when the birth rate was below replacement level. On the younger band of the population there is a noticeable gap between the ages of 14 and 20, this due to at the beginning of the 21st century a lower number of children being born (and a subsequent lower TFR), however in the years following the birth rate rose during the 2010s and a 'broadening' of the pyramid began for those in the younger years leading to more children in those age cohorts. In relation to the sex ratio of the country, in the higher ages of the population, there are more women than men reflecting the higher life expectancies of women in the population, in the lower ages there are more men than women because there are slightly more boys than girls born each year.^[69][70] In relation to the older age brackets, In 2015, there were estimated to be over half a million people (556,270) aged 90 and over living in the UK, up from 194,670 people in 1985,^[71] and there were estimated to be 14,570 centenarians (people aged 100 or over) and 850 people aged 105 or over.^[72] The Office of National Statistics has also wrote in their mid-2016 report on population projections that the median age of the British population was 40 years of age,^[73] and this will continue to rise as more people in the population age and a below-replacement level fertility level not refilling the population. This will make the number of people aged 85 and over double from 1.6 million in mid-2016 to 3.2 million in mid-2041.^[74]

The demographic ageing of the population is not evenly spread geographically, as people in rural areas are typically of a higher age than those living in metropolitan areas such as Greater London for example.^[68]

• Population pyramids of each constituent country
• 
  England (2020 estimate)
• 
  Scotland (2020 estimate)
• 
  Wales (2020 estimate)
• 
  Northern Ireland (2020 estimate)

• Age brackets as a percentage of the total population in local authorities in 2021
• 
  Under 15 years old

    Less than 15%

    15 to 18%

    18 to 20%

    Above 20%
• 
  16 to 64 years old (working age)

    Less than 60%

    60 to 65%

    65 to 70%

    Above 70%
• 
  Above the age of 65 years old

    5 to 15%

    15 to 20%

    20 to 25%

    25% and above

Age structures 1976–2019^[75][76]

Ages	1976	1986	1999	2016	2019
0–15 years (%)	24.5	20.5	20.4	18.9	19.0
16–64 years (%)	61.2	64.1	63.8	63.1	62.5
65 years and over (%)	14.2	15.4	15.8	18.0	18.5

Median age of the population^[5][77]

Median age	1950	1960	1971	1981	1991	2000	2010	2020	2030	2040	2050	2060	2070	2080	2090	2100
Total	34.9 years	35.6 years	34.1 years	34.5 years	35.8 years	37.6 years	39.6 years	40.6 years	42.4 years	43.8 years	43.9 years	44.7 years	45.5 years	46 years	46.7 years	47.7 years
Male	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	39.6 years	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Female	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	41.7 years	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–

The United Kingdom is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, in 2020 it was the 8th most densely populated country.^[78]

The current largest metropolitan areas are listed below:

Rapid urbanisation began with the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the mid to late 18th century, shifting jobs and more importantly people away from rural Britain's dominance at the time which was primarily agricultural, to manufacturing jobs within urban areas which started to spring up.^[82] In 1750, an estimated total of around only 1 million people lived in some sort of urban area such as a town or city,^[83] which was around 1/6th of the estimated total population but a century later this had risen to 8 million people in 1850,^[83] equating to just over half of the nation.^[82][83]

While this mass urbanisation affected pre-existing cities to a large degree such as London, smaller and 'newer' towns were in particular effected by the re-distribution of the population and exploded in raw population growth.^[82] Cities such as Birmingham, Bristol, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield and Newcastle for example had an explosive expansion in population numbers around the middle of the 19th century due to the industrial expansion of said cities bringing jobs and again people in for work.^[84][83] London during the 19th century become noted as the 'premier city' of the world, being the most populated city from 1825 to 1900^[85] and being the first city in Europe and one of the first in the world to reach the figure of one million inhabitants,^[86] and then 5 million inhabitants.^[85] This urbanisation in the 19th century has had two phases.^[82] This mass influx of the population into the cities resulted in a centralisation of the population into the inner city areas however by the time of the late 19th century and early 20th century when technological advancements in transport kicked off allowing cities to expand their 'peripherals' from the inner areas to create large scale 'city regions' of their own.^[82] London in particular during the 19th century had the majority of its population within the city living in the inner centre, however by the 20th century a massive expansion of 'Outer London' began which slowly became larger in population size by the middle of the century than Inner London.

By the end of the 20th century the figure of urbanisation was 80% of the country.^[82] Importance in population size however of the capital declined during the latter half of the 20th century. By the end of the 20th century, London's ranking on the most populated cities of the world had fallen down to not even being in the top 20.^[86]

The current classification of an 'urban' area, also termed as a 'built-up area' (BUA)^[87] in the 2011 census, is a settlement which takes variables from both numerical population numbers and population density; in population numbers this is roughly more than or 10,000 people living in an area.^[88][89] Anything below that is classified as 'rural', having several levels of distinction to define a rural town and fringe, village or hamlet which is usually taken from population density figures.^[89] These areas are then defined within 'output areas' (OA's) themselves, which are geographic areas of the United Kingdom.^[89][87] The population which resides within classified 'urban' areas was 84.4% of total population in 2022 and the annual rate of urbanisation change is estimated to be around 0.8% between 2020 and 2025.^[5]

Vital statistics from 1900 to 2023

	Average population (Mid-year)[90]	Live births[91]	Deaths	Natural change	Crude birth rate (per 1000)[92]	Crude death rate (per 1000)[92]	Natural change (per 1000)	Crude migration change (per 1000)	Total Fertility Rate[c][42][5]
1900	41,154,600	1,089,487	695,867	393,620	26.5	16.9	9.6		3.53
1901	41,538,200	1,092,781	655,646	437,135	26.3	15.8	10.5	−1.2	3.49
1902	41,892,700	1,103,483	636,650	466,833	26.3	15.2	11.1	−2.6	3.44
1903	42,246,600	1,113,086	613,726	499,360	26.3	14.5	11.8	−3.4	3.40
1904	42,611,400	1,109,542	651,301	458,241	26	15.3	10.8	−2.2	3.35
1905	42,980,800	1,092,108	617,516	474,592	25.4	14.4	11	−2.3	3.30
1906	43,361,100	1,098,475	629,955	468,520	25.3	14.5	10.8	−2.0	3.24
1907	43,737,800	1,077,851	625,271	452,580	24.6	14.3	10.3	−1.6	3.19
1908	44,123,800	1,102,345	621,427	480,918	25	14.1	10.9	−2.1	3.14
1909	44,519,500	1,073,781	614,910	458,871	24.1	13.8	10.3	−1.3	3.07
1910	44,915,900	1,051,240	578,091	473,149	23.4	12.9	10.5	−1.6	2.99
1911	42,189,800	1,033,395	620,828	412,567	24.5	14.7	9.8	−70.5	2.92
1912	42,373,600	1,025,828	580,977	444,851	24.2	13.7	10.5	−6.1	2.90
1913	42,582,300	1,032,286	600,554	431,732	24.2	14.1	10.1	−5.2	2.93
1914	42,956,900	1,032,734	611,970	420,764	24	14.2	9.8	−1.9	2.88
1915	41,361,500	956,877	666,322	290,555	23.1	16.1	7	−44.1	2.59
1916	40,536,300	922,085	599,621	322,464	22.7	14.8	8	−28.0	2.60
1917	39,780,700	790,736	589,416	201,320	19.9	14.8	5.1	−23.7	2.10
1918	39,582,000	787,427	715,246	72,181	19.9	18.1	1.8	−6.8	2.03
1919	42,944,100	826,202	602,188	224,014	19.2	18.1	5.2	79.7	2.31
1920	43,646,400	1,126,849	555,326	571,523	19.2	14	13.1	3.3	3.08
1921	43,904,100	1,001,725	544,140	457,585	22.8	12.4	10.4	−4.5	2.69
1922	44,331,500	924,740	579,480	345,260	20.9	13.1	7.8	1.9	2.44
1923	44,563,100	900,130	526,858	373,272	20.2	11.8	8.4	−3.2	2.38
1924	44,885,600	865,329	563,891	301,438	19.3	12.6	6.7	0.5	2.28
1925	45,040,000	842,405	558,132	284,273	18.7	12.4	6.3	−2.9	2.20
1926	45,217,600	825,174	536,411	288,763	18.2	11.9	6.4	−2.5	2.15
1927	45,432,000	777,520	568,655	208,865	17.1	12.5	4.6	0.1	2.01
1928	45,622,200	783,052	543,664	239,388	17.2	11.9	5.2	−1.0	2.01
1929	45,731,000	761,963	623,231	138,732	16.7	13.6	3	−0.6	1.95
1930	45,888,900	769,239	536,860	232,379	16.8	11.7	5.1	−1.6	1.95
1931	46,073,600	749,974	573,908	176,066	16.3	12.5	3.8	0.2	1.89
1932	46,335,000	730,079	567,986	162,093	15.8	12.3	3.5	2.2	1.83
1933	46,520,000	691,560	579,467	112,093	14.9	12.5	2.4	1.6	1.72
1934	46,666,000	711,483	558,072	153,411	15.2	12	3.3	−0.2	1.76
1935	46,869,500	711,426	561,324	150,102	15.2	12	3.2	1.2	1.75
1936	47,081,300	720,129	580,942	139,187	15.3	12.3	3	1.5	1.77
1937	47,288,600	723,779	597,798	125,981	15.3	12.6	2.7	1.7	1.79
1938	47,494,100	735,573	559,598	175,975	15.5	11.8	3.7	0.6	1.84
1939	47,547,700	726,632	581,857	144,775	15.3	12.2	3.0	−1.9	1.84
1940	46,026,200	701,875	673,253	28,622	15.2	14.6	0.6	−32.6	1.74
1941	44,870,400	695,726	627,378	68,348	15.5	14.0	1.5	−26.6	1.72
1942	44,323,000	771,851	562,356	209,495	17.4	12.7	4.7	−16.9	1.93
1943	48,261,000	810,524	585,582	224,942	16.8	12.1	4.7	84.1	2.03
1944	48,261,600	878,298	573,570	303,728	18.2	11.9	-6.3	6.3	2.25
1945	48,668,900	795,868	567,027	228,841	16.4	11.7	4.7	3.7	2.05
1946	48,987,800	955,266	573,361	381,905	19.5	11.7	7.8	−1.2	2.47
1947	49,538,700	1,025,427	600,728[93]	424,699	20.7	12.1	8.6	2.6	2.69
1948	50,033,200	905,182	546,002	359,180	18.1	10.9	7.2	2.8	2.39
1949	50,331,000	855,298	589,876	265,422	17	11.7	5.3	0.7	2.26
1950	50,381,500[94]	818,421	590,136	228,285	16.2	11.7	4.5	−3.5	2.08
1951	50,286,900	796,645	632,786	163,859	15.8	12.6	3.3	−5.2	2.10
1952	50,429,200	792,917	573,806	219,111	15.7	11.4	4.3	−1.5	2.15
1953	50,592,900	804,269	577,220	227,049	15.9	11.4	4.5	−1.3	2.20
1954	50,764,900	794,769	578,400	216,369	15.7	11.4	4.3	−0.9	2.26
1955	50,946,100	789,315	595,916	193,399	15.5	11.7	3.8	−0.2	2.33
1956	51,183,500	825,137	597,981	227,156	16.1	11.7	4.4	0.3	2.40
1957	51,430,200	851,466	591,200	260,266	16.6	11.5	5.1	−0.3	2.48
1958	51,652,500	870,497	604,040	266,457	16.9	11.7	5.2	−0.9	2.55
1959	51,956,300	878,561	606,115	272,446	16.9	11.7	5.2	0.7	2.63
1960	52,372,500	918,286	603,328	314,958	17.5	11.5	6.0	2.0	2.71
1961	52,807,400	944,365	631,788	312,577	17.9	12.0	5.9	2.4	2.78
1962	53,291,800	975,635	636,051	339,584	18.3	11.9	6.4	2.8	2.87
1963	53,624,900	990,160	654,288	335,872	18.5	12.2	6.3	0	2.90
1964	53,990,800	1,014,672	611,130	403,542	18.8	11.3	7.5	−0.7	2.95
1965	54,349,500	997,275	627,798	369,477	18.3	11.6	6.8	−0.2	2.88
1966	54,642,700	979,587	643,754	335,833	17.9	11.8	6.1	−0.7	2.80
1967	54,959,000	961,800	616,710	345,090	17.5	11.2	6.3	−0.5	2.69
1968	55,213,500	947,231	655,998	291,233	17.2	11.9	5.3	−0.7	2.61
1969	55,460,600	920,256	659,537	260,719	16.6	11.9	4.7	−0.2	2.51
1970	55,632,200	903,907	655,385	248,522	16.2	11.8	4.5	−1.4	2.44
1971	55,928,000	901,648	645,078	256,570	16.1	11.5	4.6	0.7	2.40
1972	56,096,000	833,984	673,938	160,046	14.9	12.0	2.9	0.1	2.20
1973	56,223,000	779,545	669,692	109,853	13.9	11.9	2.0	0.4	2.03
1974	56,235,000	737,138	667,359	69,779	13.1	11.9	1.2	−1.0	1.92
1975	56,225,000	697,518	662,477	35,041	12.4	11.8	0.6	−0.8	1.81
1976	56,216,000	675,526	680,799	-5,273	12.0	12.1	-0.1	−0.1	1.74
1977	56,189,000	657,038	655,143	1,895	11.7	11.7	0.0	−0.5	1.69
1978	56,178,000	686,952	667,177	19,775	12.2	11.9	0.4	−0.6	1.75
1979	56,240,000	734,572	675,576	58,996	13.1	12.0	1.0	0.1	1.86
1980	56,329,000	753,708	661,519	92,189	13.4	11.7	1.6	0	1.90
1981	56,357,000	730,712	657,974	72,738	13.0	11.7	1.3	−0.8	1.82
1982	56,290,000	718,999	662,081	56,918	12.8	11.8	1.0	−2.2	1.78
1983	56,315,000	721,238	659,101	62,137	12.8	11.7	1.1	−0.7	1.77
1984	56,409,000	729,401	644,918	84,483	12.9	11.4	1.5	0.2	1.77
1985	56,554,000	750,520	670,656	79,864	13.3	11.9	1.4	1.2	1.79
1986	56,683,000	754,805	660,735	94,070	13.3	11.7	1.7	0.6	1.78
1987	56,804,000	775,405	644,342	131,063	13.7	11.3	2.3	−0.2	1.81
1988	56,916,000	787,303	649,178	138,125	13.8	11.4	2.4	−0.4	1.82
1989	57,076,000	777,036	657,733	119,303	13.6	11.5	2.1	0.7	1.79
1990	57,237,500	798,364	641,799	156,565	13.9	11.2	2.7	0.1	1.83
1991	57,438,700	792,269	646,181	146,088	13.8	11.3	2.5	1.0	1.82
1992	57,584,500	780,779	634,238	146,541	13.6	11.0	2.5	0	1.79
1993	57,713,900	761,526	658,194	103,332	13.2	11.4	1.8	0.4	1.76
1994	57,862,100	750,480	626,222	124,258	13.0	10.8	2.1	0.5	1.74
1995	58,024,800	731,882	641,712	90,170	12.6	11.1	1.6	1.2	1.71
1996	58,164,400	733,163	638,879	94,284	12.6	11.0	1.6	0.8	1.73
1997	58,314,200	726,622	632,517	94,105	12.5	10.8	1.6	1.0	1.72
1998	58,474,900	716,888	627,592	89,296	12.3	10.7	1.5	1.3	1.71
1999	58,684,400	699,976	629,476	70,500	11.9	10.7	1.2	2.4	1.68
2000	58,886,100	679,029	610,579	68,450	11.5	10.4	1.2	2.2	1.64
2001	59,113,000	669,123	604,393	64,730	11.3	10.2	1.1	2.8	1.63
2002	59,365,700	668,777	608,045	60,732	11.3	10.2	1.0	3.3	1.63
2003	59,636,700	695,549	612,085	83,464	11.7	10.3	1.4	3.2	1.70
2004	59,950,400	715,996	584,791	131,205	11.9	9.8	2.2	3.1	1.77
2005	60,413,300	722,549	582,964	139,585	12.0	9.6	2.3	5.4	1.76
2006	60,827,100	748,563	572,224	176,339	12.3	9.4	2.9	3.9	1.82
2007	61,319,100	772,245	574,687	197,558	12.6	9.4	3.2	4.9	1.87
2008	61,823,800	794,383	579,697	214,686	12.8	9.4	3.5	4.7	1.96
2009	62,260,500	790,204	559,617	230,587	12.7	9.0	3.7	3.4	1.89
2010	62,759,500	807,721	561,666	246,055	12.9	8.9	3.9	4.1	1.92
2011	63,285,100	807,776	552,232	255,544	12.8	8.7	4.0	4.4	1.91
2012	63,705,000	812,970	569,024	243,946	12.8	8.9	3.8	2.8	1.92
2013	64,105,700	778,803	575,458	203,345	12.1	9.0	3.2	3.1	1.83
2014	64,596,800	776,352	570,341	206,011	12.0	8.8	3.2	4.5	1.82
2015	65,110,000	777,165	602,782	174,383	11.9	9.3	2.7	5.2	1.80
2016	65,648,100	774,835	595,659	179,176	11.8	9.1	2.7	5.5	1.79
2017	66,040,200	755,066	607,172	147,894	11.4	9.2	2.2	3.7	1.74
2018	66,435,600	731,213	616,014	115,199	11.0	9.3	1.7	4.2	1.68
2019	66,796,800	712,699	604,707	107,992	10.7	9.1	1.6	3.8	1.63
2020	67,081,234	681,560	689,629	-8,069	10.2	10.3	-0.1	4.4	1.56
2021	67,026,292	694,685	666,659	28,026	10.3	9.9	0.4	−1.2	1.54[95]
2022	67,596,300	673,141	657,278[96][97][98]	15,863	10.0	9.7	0.3	8.3	1.49[99]
2023	68,265,200[100]	656,847	660,772	-3,925	9.7	9.7	-0.0	10.0	1.42

2023

Regions	TFR
Northern Ireland	1.68
West Midlands	1.58
East of England	1.53
South East	1.48
Yorkshire and the Humber	1.47
North West	1.46
East Midlands	1.45
North East	1.44
Wales	1.42
South West	1.36
London	1.34
Scotland	1.26

Vital statistics for 2023 – 2024

Period	Live births	Deaths[101][102][103]	Natural increase
January to August 2023		450,182
January to August 2024		436,494
Difference		-13,688 (−3.04%)

Parents’ country of birth:^[105]

Place of birth of parent	Number of births by place of birth of father (% of total births)(2010)	(2011)	(2012)	(2013)	(2014)	(2015)	(2016)	(2017)	(2018)	(2019)	(2020)	(2021)	(2022)	(2023)	Number of births by place of birth of mother (% of total births) (2010)	(2011)	(2012)	(2013)	(2014)	(2015)	(2016)	(2017)	(2018)	(2019)	(2020)	(2021)	(2022)	(2023)
Total	723 165 (100)	723 913 (100)	729 674 (100)	698 512 (100)	695 233 (100)	697 852 (100)	696 271 (100)	679 106 (100)	657 076 (100)	640 370 (100)	613 936 (100)	624 828 (100)	605 479 (100)	723 165 (100)	723 913 (100)	729 674 (100)	698 512 (100)	695 233 (100)	697 852 (100)	696 271 (100)	679 106 (100)	657 076 (100)	64 0370 (100)	613 936 (100)	624 828 (100)	605 479 (100)
United Kingdom	511 264 (70.70)	510 370 (70.50)	512 136 (70.19)	487 046 (69.73)	482 314 (69.37)	481 227 (68.96)	476 354 (68.42)	462 923 (68.17)	448 411 (68.24)	434 113 (67.79)	413 208 (67.30)	427 313 (68.39)	402 503 (66.48)	541 321 (74.85)	539 364 (74.51)	540 572 (74.08)	513 411 (73.50)	507 587 (73.01)	505 588 (72.45)	499 974 (71.81)	486 417 (71.63)	471 476 (71.75)	456 328 (71.26)	434 024 (70.70)	445 055 (71.23)	422 109 (69.71)
Total outside United Kingdom	169 393 (23.42)	171 702 (23.72)	175 639 (24.07)	172 139 (24.64)	175 118 (25.19)	179 795 (25.76)	183 764 (26.39)	180 951 (26.65)	174 579 (26.57)	173 119 (27.03)	168 742 (27.49)	168 476 (26.96)	173 197 (28.60)	181 827 (25.14)	184 529 (25.49)	189 079 (25.91)	185 075 (26.50)	187 610 (26.99)	192 227 (27.55)	196 254 (28.19)	192 651 (28.37)	185 569 (28.24)	184 003 (28.73)	179 881 (29.30)	179 726 (28.76)	183 309 (30.28)
Not Stated	42 508 (5.88)	41 841 (5.78)	41 899 (5.74)	39 327 (5.63)	37 801 (5.44)	36 830 (5.28)	36 153 (5.19)	35 232 (5.19)	34 086 (5.19)	33 138 (5.17)	31 986 (5.21)	29 039 (4.65)	29 779 (4.92)	17 (0.00)	20 (0.00)	23 (0.00)	26 (0.00)	36 (0.00)	37 (0.00)	43 (0.00)	38 (0.00)	31 (0.00)	39 (0.00)	31 (0.01)	47 (0.01)	61 (0.01)
Total outside United Kingdom detail :
EU	41 269 (5.71)	43 335 (5.99)	46 418 (6.36)	47 607 (6.82)	50 512 (7.27)	55 334 (7.93)	57 858 (8.31)	58 565 (8.62)	57 540 (8.76)	55 626 (8.69)	52 325 (8.52)	51 720 (8.28)	47 423 (7.83)	52 699 (7.29)	55 058 (7.61)	58 911 (8.07)	60 448 (8.65)	64 067 (9.22)	69 070 (9.90)	71 669 (10.29)	71 472 (10.52)	69 775 (10.62)	67 645 (10.56)	63 732 (10.38)	62 992 (10.08)	58 037 (9.59)
Germany	4 368 (0.60)	4 298 (0.59)	4 187 (0.57)	3 957 (0.57)	3 988 (0.57)	3 972 (0.57)	3 875 (0.56)	3 687 (0.54)	3 653 (0.56)	3 198 (0.50)	3 107 (0.51)			5 328 (0.74)	5 108 (0.71)	5 064 (0.69)	4 838 (0.69)	4 708 (0.68)	4 667 (0.67)	4 560 (0.65)	4 245 (0.63)	3 917 (0.60)	3 816 (0.60)	3 609 (0.59)	3 511 (0.56)	3 154 (0.52)
New EU	25 758 (3.56)	27 962 (3.86)	30 695 (4.21)	31 992 (4.58)	34 139 (4.91)	38 009 (5.45)	39 985 (5.74)	40 636 (5.98)	39 933 (6.08)	38 490 (6.01)	35 651 (5.81)	34 666 (5.55)	31 515 (5.20)	34 194 (4.73)	37 063 (5.12)	40 821 (5.59)	42 523 (6.09)	45 344 (6.52)	49 642 (7.11)	51 962 (7.46)	51 863 (7.64)	50 840 (7.74)	48 716 (7.61)	45 034 (7.34)	43 823 (7.01)	39 896 (6.59)
Romania			3 867 (0.53)	4 387 (0.63)	5 414 (0.78)	7 856 (1.13)	10 684 (1.53)	12 856 (1.89)	14 269 (2.17)	15 211 (2.38)	14 791 (2.41)	15 099 (2.42)	14 651 (2.42)			4 406 (0.60)	4 956 (0.71)	6 102 (0.88)	8 734 (1.25)	11 721 (1.68)	13 717 (2.02)	15 196 (2.31)	16 069 (2.51)	15 713 (2.56)	15 894 (2.54)	15 518 (2.56)
Poland	15 619 (2.16)	16 150 (2.23)	16 432 (2.25)	16 436 (2.35)	16 950 (2.44)	17 704 (2.54)	16 956 (2.44)	15 610 (2.30)	13 838 (2.11)	12 041 (1.88)	10 542 (1.72)	9 458 (1.51)	7 613 (1.26)	19 762 (2.73)	20 495 (2.83)	21 156 (2.90)	21 275 (3.05)	22 122 (3.18)	22 928 (3.29)	22 382 (3.21)	20 779 (3.06)	18 765 (2.86)	16 737 (2.61)	14 633 (2.38)	13 373 (2.14)	11 107 (1.83)
Lithuania						3 512 (0.50)		3 454 (0.51)							3 788 (0.52)	4 535 (0.62)	4 595 (0.66)	4 786 (0.69)	4 872 (0.70)	4 912 (0.71)	4 803 (0.71)	4 517 (0.69)	4 133 (0.65)	3 619 (0.59)	3 499 (0.56)
Rest of Europe (non EU)	7 392 (1.02)	7 276 (1.01)	7 705 (1.06)	7 608 (1.09)	8 185 (1.18)	8 776 (1.26)	9 289 (1.33)	9 552 (1.41)	9 697 (1.48)	10 553 (1.65)	10 765 (1.75)	11 346 (1.82)	11 557 (1.91)	7 548 (1.04)	7 537 (1.04)	7 890 (1.08)	7 959 (1.14)	8 562 (1.23)	9 208 (1.32)	9 930 (1.43)	10 385 (1.53)	10 599 (1.61)	11 418 (1.78)	11 574 (1.89)	11 974 (1.92)	12 053 (1.99)
Albania												3 344 (0.54)	3 768 (0.62)												3 260 (0.52)	3 515 (0.58)
Africa	40 816 (5.64)	39 746 (5.49)	39 026 (5.35)	37 563 (5.38)	37 067 (5.33)	36 876 (5.28)	36 667 (5.27)	35 459 (5.22)	33 741 (5.14)	33 375 (5.21)	32 197 (5.24)	31 800 (5.09)	35 053 (5.79)	39 828 (5.51)	38 523 (5.32)	37 837 (5.19)	36 264 (5.19)	35 030 (5.04)	34 960 (5.01)	34 437 (4.95)	32 875 (4.84)	31 158 (4.74)	30 753 (4.80)	29 660 (4.83)	29 150 (4.67)	32 315 (5.34)
North Africa	4 939 (0.68)	4 650 (0.64)	4 504 (0.62)	4 632 (0.66)	4 737 (0.68)	4 760 (0.68)	4 762 (0.68)	4 669 (0.69)	4 669 (0.71)	4 874 (0.76)	4 808 (0.78)	4 531 (0.73)	4 720 (0.78)	3 839 (0.53)	3 562 (0.49)	3 488 (0.48)	3 661 (0.52)	3 733 (0.54)	3 853 (0.55)	3 901 (0.56)	3 907 (0.58)	3 945 (0.60)	4 145 (0.65)	4 270 (0.70)	4 006 (0.64)	4 256 (0.70)
Western Africa	14 240 (1.97)	14 336 (1.98)	14 546 (1.99)	14 314 (2.05)	14 508 (2.09)	14 350 (2.06)	14 383 (2.07)	13 733 (2.02)	13 246 (2.02)	12 992 (2.03)	12 689 (2.07)	12 828 (2.05)	15 696 (2.59)	13 217 (1.83)	13 067 (1.81)	13 344 (1.83)	12 906 (1.85)	12 613 (1.81)	12 472 (1.79)	12 254 (1.76)	11 381 (1.68)	10 809 (1.65%)	10 625 (1.66)	10 468 (1.71)	10 487 (1.68)	13 313 (2.20)
Nigeria	8 129 (1.12)	8 335 (1.15)	8 628 (1.18)	8 397 (1.20)	8 467 (1.22)	8 339 (1.19)	8 208 (1.18)	7 821 (1.15)	7 494 (1.14)	7 201 (1.12)	7 124 (1.16)	7 492 (1.20)	10 042 (1.66)	7 332 (1.01)	7 476 (1.03)	7 685 (1.05)	7 267 (1.04)	7 030 (1.01)	6 829 (0.98)	6 635 (0.95)	6 074 (0.89)	5 769 (0.88)	5 634 (0.88)	5 575 (0.91)	5 907 (0.95)	8 458 (1.40)
Ghana	3 487 (0.48)	3 346 (0.46)					3 545 (0.51)		3 405 (0.52)	3 366 (0.53)	3 241 (0.53)	3 085 (0.49)	3 418 (0.56)	3 566 (0.49)
Central Africa	2 468 (0.34)	2 271 (0.31)	2 228 (0.31)	2 196 (0.31)	2 212 (0.32)	2 212 (0.32)	2 216 (0.32)	2 248 (0.33)	2 126 (0.32)	2 033 (0.32)	1 926 (0.31)	1 805 (0.29)	1 950 (0.32)	2 599 (0.36)	2 364 (0.33)	2 356 (0.32)	2 288 (0.33)	2 275 (0.33)	2 343 (0.34)	2 247 (0.32)	2 245 (0.33)	2 117 (0.32%)	2 075 (0.32)	1 890 (0.31)	1 838 (0.29)	1 848 (0.31)
Eastern Africa	14 427 (1.99)	13 930 (1.92)	13 172 (1.81)	12 280 (1.76)	11 656 (1.68)	11 719 (1.68)	11 510 (1.65)	11 145 (1.64)	10 350 (1.58)	10 224 (1.60)	9 529 (1.55)	9 340 (1.49)	9 514 (1.57)	15 417 (2.13)	14 800 (2.04)	14 149 (1.94)	13 305 (1.90)	12 586 (1.81)	12 499 (1.79)	12 371 (1.78)	11 899 (1.75)	11 017 (1.68%)	10 759 (1.68)	10 013 (1.63)	9 751 (1.56)	9 895 (1.63)
Somalia	5 311 (0.73)	5 171 (0.71)	4 877 (0.67)	4 540 (0.65)	4 334 (0.62)	4 286 (0.61)	4 346 (0.62)	4 139 (0.61)	3 635 (0.55)	3 586 (0.56)	3 289 (0.54)	3 168 (0.51)	3 039 (0.50)	5 882 (0.81)	5 654 (0.78)	5 300 (0.73)	4 897 (0.70)	4 696 (0.68)	4 636 (0.66)	4 621 (0.66)	4 390 (0.65)	3 765 (0.57)	3 698 (0.58)	3 347 (0.55)
Southern Africa	4 633 (0.64)	4 465 (0.62)	4 477 (0.61)	4 051 (0.58)	3 887 (0.56)	3 767 (0.54)	3 736 (0.54)	3 612 (0.53)	3 305 (0.50)	3 208 (0.50)	3 204 (0.52)	3 238 (0.52)	3 127 (0.52)	4 675 (0.65)	4 651 (0.64)	4 425 (0.61)	4 032 (0.58)	3 765 (0.54)	3 743 (0.54)	3 613 (0.52)	3 395 (0.50)	3 231 (0.49)	3 113 (0.49)	2 985 (0.49)	3 018 (0.48)	2 952 (0.49)
South Africa	4 485 (0.62)	4 325 (0.60)	4 337 (0.59)	3 885 (0.56)	3 744 (0.54)	3 618 (0.52)	3 559 (0.51)	3 473 (0.51)	3 178 (0.48)					4 456 (0.62)	4 430 (0.61)	4 231 (0.58)	3 824 (0.55)		3 537 (0.51)
The Americas and the Caribbean	10 865 (1.50)	10 673 (1.47)	10 861 (1.49)	10 196 (1.46)	10 541 (1.52)	10 360 (1.48)	10 606 (1.52)	10 236 (1.51)	10 061 (1.53)	10 030 (1.57)	9 844 (1.60)	10 169 (1.63)	10 259 (1.69)	11 494 (1.59)	11 286 (1.56)	11 317 (1.55)	10 933 (1.57)	11 191 (1.61)	11 346 (1.63)	11 441 (1.64)	11 102 (1.63)	11 097 (1.69)	10 927 (1.71)	10 912 (1.78)	11 439 (1.83)	11 487 (1.90)
North America	3 648 (0.50)	3 680 (0.51)	3 710 (0.51)	3 465 (0.50)	3 728 (0.54)	3 596 (0.52)	3 711 (0.53)	3 482 (0.51)	3 461 (0.53)	3 407 (0.53)	3 329 (0.54)	3 468 (0.56)	3 236 (0.53)	4 604 (0.64)	4 518 (0.62)	4 567 (0.63)	4 382 (0.63)	4 586 (0.66)	4 564 (0.65)	4 633 (0.67)	4 429 (0.65)	4 476 (0.68)	4 338 (0.68)	4 206 (0.69)	4 583 (0.73)	4 257 (0.70)
United States Of America																					3 271 (0.48)	3 333 (0.51)	3 240 (0.51)	3 145 (0.51)	3 446 (0.55)	3 200 (0.53)
Central America	233 (0.03)	252 (0.03)	221 (0.03)	249 (0.04)	243 (0.03)	284 (0.04)	284 (0.04)	254 (0.04)	274 (0.04)	279 (0.04)	279 (0.05)	342 (0.05)	383 (0.06)	343 (0.05)	373 (0.05)	345 (0.05)	365 (0.05)	403 (0.06)	414 (0.06)	402 (0.06)	410 (0.06)	428 (0.07)	412 (0.06)	427 (0.07)	494 (0.08)	513 (0.08)
South America	2 427 (0.34)	2 363 (0.33)	2 461 (0.34)	2 438 (0.35)	2 624 (0.38)	2 698 (0.39)	2 935 (0.42)	2 930 (0.43)	3 027 (0.46)	3 095 (0.48)	3 245 (0.53)	3 414 (0.55)	3 651 (0.60)	3 378 (0.47)	3 282 (0.45)	3 285 (0.45)	3 301 (0.47)	3 419 (0.49)	3 594 (0.52)	3 799 (0.55)	3 823 (0.56)	3 813 (0.58)	3 939 (0.62)	4 117 (0.67)	4 238 (0.68)	4 509 (0.74)
Caribbean	4 557 (0.63)	4 378 (0.60)	4 469 (0.61)	4 044 (0.58)	3 946 (0.57)	3 782 (0.54)	3 676 (0.53)	3 570 (0.53)	3 299 (0.50)	3 249 (0.51)	2 991 (0.49)	2 945 (0.47)	2 989 (0.49)	3 169 (0.44)	3 113 (0.43)	3 120 (0.43)	2 885 (0.41)	2 783 (0.40)	2 774 (0.40)	2 607 (0.37)	2 440 (0.36)	2 380 (0.36)	2 238 (0.35)	2 162 (0.35)	2 124 (0.34)	2 208 (0.36)
Middle East and Asia	65 060 (9.00)	66 963 (9.25)	67 999 (9.32)	65 764 (9.41)	65 634 (9.44)	65 419 (9.37)	66 259 (9.52)	64 234 (9.46)	60 879 (9.27)	61 081 (9.54)	61 258 (9.98)	61 002 (9.76)	66 899 (11.05)	66 348 (9.17)	68 534 (9.47)	69 667 (9.55)	66 324 (9.50)	65 725 (9.45)	64 748 (9.28)	65 961 (9.47)	64 126 (9.44)	60 431 (9.20)	60 881 (9.51)	61 760 (10.06)	61 854 (9.90)	67 342 (11.12)
Middle East	8 035 (1.11)	7 967 (1.10)	7 926 (1.09)	8 049 (1.15)	8 392 (1.21)	8 753 (1.25)	9 229 (1.33)	9 578 (1.41)	9 801 (1.49)	9 693 (1.51)	9 452 (1.54)	9 687 (1.55)	10 302 (1.70)	6 657 (0.92)	6 793 (0.94)	6 781 (0.93)	6 773 (0.97)	7 073 (1.02)	7 409 (1.06)	7 883 (1.13)	8 269 (1.22)	8 433 (1.28)	8 600 (1.34)	8 387 (1.37)	8 676 (1.39)	9 255 (1.53)
Central Asia	166 (0.02)	161 (0.02)	190 (0.03)	185 (0.03)	220 (0.03)	188 (0.03)	193 (0.03)	189 (0.03)	223 (0.03)	179 (0.03)	210 (0.03)	222 (0.04)	219 (0.04)	296 (0.04)	360 (0.05)	375 (0.05)	364 (0.05)	376 (0.05)	422 (0.06)	403 (0.06)	397 (0.06)	432 (0.07)	363 (0.06)	415 (0.07)	368 (0.06)	352 (0.06)
Eastern Asia	4 019 (0.56)	4 030 (0.56)	4 493 (0.62)	3 724 (0.53)	4 118 (0.59)	3 724 (0.53)	3 912 (0.56)	3 457 (0.51)	3 104 (0.47)	3 016 (0.47)	2 721 (0.44)	2 419 (0.39)	2 657 (0.44)	5 931 (0.82)	5 928 (0.82)	6 541 (0.90)	5 605 (0.80)	6 072 (0.87)	5 538 (0.79)	5 836 (0.84)	5 346 (0.79)	4 765 (0.73)	4 614 (0.72)	4 129 (0.67)	3 871 (0.62)	4 075 (0.67)
China															3 611 (0.50)			3 882 (0.56)		3 596 (0.52)
Southern Asia	48 722 (6.74)	50 693 (7.00)	51 472 (7.05)	50 389 (7.21)	49 602 (7.13)	49 468 (7.09)	49 799 (7.15)	48 143 (7.09)	45 047 (6.86)	45 482 (7.10)	46 059 (7.50)	45 924 (7.35)	50 645 (8.36)	46 737 (6.46)	48 817 (6.74)	49 302 (6.76)	47 755 (6.84)	46 485 (6.69)	45 795 (6.56)	46 409 (6.67)	44 953 (6.62)	42 007 (6.39)	42 556 (6.65)	44 008 (7.17)	44 170 (7.07)	48 645 (8.03)
India	12 799 (1.77)	14 181 (1.96)	13 991 (1.92)	13 662 (1.96)	13 639 (1.96)	13 798 (1.98)	14 007 (2.01)	13 715 (2.02)	12 968 (1.97)	13 569 (2.12)	14 631 (2.38)	15 452 (2.47)	18 013 (2.97)	13 575 (1.88)	14 892 (2.06)	14 621 (2.00)	14 044 (2.01)	13 735 (1.98)	13 780 (1.97)	13 883 (1.99)	13 476 (1.98)	12 675 (1.93)	13 108 (2.05)	14 404 (2.35)	15 260 (2.44)	17 745 (2.93)
Pakistan	19 091 (2.64)	19 612 (2.71)	20 280 (2.78)	20 068 (2.87)	19 601 (2.82)	19 236 (2.76)	19 131 (2.75)	18 513 (2.73)	17 334 (2.64)	17 519 (2.74)	17 140 (2.79)	16 375 (2.62)	17 393 (2.87)	17 840 (2.47)	18 434 (2.55)	19 091 (2.62)	18 578 (2.66)	17 943 (2.58)	17 342 (2.49)	17 367 (2.49)	17 099 (2.52)	15 996 (2.43)	16 320 (2.55)	16 460 (2.68)	15 791 (2.53)	16 654 (2.75)
Bangladesh	9 105 (1.26)	9 027 (1.25)	9 033 (1.24)	8 776 (1.26)	8 534 (1.23)	8 699 (1.25)	8 876 (1.27)	8 286 (1.22)	7 754 (1.18)	7 371 (1.15)	7 244 (1.18)	7 184 (1.15)	7 435 (1.23)	8 360 (1.16)	8 371 (1.16)	8 224 (1.13)	7 982 (1.14)	7 783 (1.12)	7 752 (1.11)	8 106 (1.16)	7 426 (1.09)	7 027 (1.07)	6 774 (1.06)	6 767 (1.10)	6 790 (1.09)	7 007 (1.16)
Afghanistan										3 232 (0.50)	3 275 (0.53)	3 345 (0.54)	4 254 (0.70)													3 875 (0.64)
Sri Lanka	3 717 (0.51)	3 698 (0.51)	3 745 (0.51)	3 530 (0.51)	3 509 (0.50)									3 511 (0.49)
South East Asia	4 048 (0.56)	4 040 (0.56)	3 860 (0.53)	3 374 (0.48)	3 237 (0.47)	3 226 (0.46)	3 075 (0.44)	2 831 (0.42)	2 660 (0.40)	2 661 (0.42)	2 769 (0.45)	2 711 (0.43)	3 041 (0.50)	6 650 (0.92)	6 561 (0.91)	6 592 (0.90)	5 774 (0.83)	5 641 (0.81)	5 519 (0.79)	5 365 (0.77)	5 117 (0.75)	4 725 (0.72)	4 681 (0.73)	4 755 (0.77)	4 714 (0.75)	4 955 (0.82)
Antarctica and Oceania	3 991 (0.55)	3 709 (0.51)	3 630 (0.50)	3 401 (0.49)	3 179 (0.46)	3 030 (0.43)	3 085 (0.44)	2 905 (0.43)	2 661 (0.40)	2 454 (0.38)	2 353 (0.38)	2 439 (0.39)	2 006 (0.33)	3 910 (0.54)	3 591 (0.50)	3 457 (0.47)	3 147 (0.45)	3 035 (0.44))	2 895 (0.41)	2 816 (0.40)	2 691 (0.40)	2 509 (0.38)	2 379 (0.37)	2 243 (0.37)	2 317 (0.37)	2 075 (0.34)
Australasia	3 707 (0.51)	3 434 (0.47)	3 344 (0.46)	3 124 (0.45)	2 903 (0.42)	2 788 (0.40)	2 861 (0.41)	2 667 (0.39)	2 439 (0.37)	2 257 (0.35)	2 182 (0.36)	2 251 (0.36)	1 820 (0.30)	3 660 (0.51)	3 350 (0.46)	3 232 (0.44)	2 921 (0.42)	2 800 (0.40)	2 695 (0.39)	2 602 (0.37)	2 499 (0.37)	2 335 (0.36)	2 219 (0.35)	2 101 (0.34)	2 185 (0.35)	1 921 (0.32)
Other Oceania	284 (0.04)	274 (0.04)	286 (0.04)	277 (0.04)	276 (0.04)	242 (0.03)	224 (0.03)	238 (0.04)	222 (0.03)	197 (0.03)	171 (0.03)	188 (0.03)	186 (0.03)	249 (0.03)	239 (0.03)	223 (0.03)	226 (0.03)	235 (0.03)	200 (0.03)	214 (0.03)	192 (0.03)	174 (0.03)	160 (0.02)	142 (0.02)	132 (0.02)	154 (0.03)

In 2004, 58% of births were conceived within a married couple, 35% by non-married couples registered by both parents and 7% by non-married mothers who registered the birth alone.^[41]

This varied from each constituent nation, Wales for example had the highest births outside of marriage at 51% in 2004, In England this percentage was 42% and in Scotland 47%. Northern Ireland had the lowest of 35% in 2004.^[41]

• 
  Number of marriages in the United Kingdom 1887–2016
• 
  Opposite sex marriage rate over time in England and Wales
• 
  Number of divorces in England and Wales 1858–2020
• 
  Opposite sex divorce rate in England and Wales
• 
  Median age at divorce in England and Wales
• 
  Culmulative percentage of marriages ending in divorce by year of marriage in England and Wales

• Age structure of population groups relating to marriage
• 
  Never Married
• 
  Married or in Civil partnership
• 
  Divorced or dissolved Civil partnership
• 
  Widowed or surviving member of Civil partnership

• 
  Type of households out of total households in 2021
• 
  Family types out of total families in 2021
• 
  Percentage of age group living with parents in 2021

Out of the 600,000 people in the UK that applied to go to university through UCAS in 2020, 7.2%, or 40,000, described themselves as LGBT on their application form. UCAS estimates this to be a rate 2.5 times higher than the overall UK population. The UCAS report in collaboration with Stonewall also found LGBT students were more likely to come from disadvantaged backgrounds (compared to those who identified as heterosexual or didn't specify), have a disability (compared to non-LGBT students) and have a mental health condition (compared to non-LGBT students).^[106]

For the first time, the 2021 United Kingdom census included a question on sexual orientation.^[107] Results for Scotland are expected to be published from spring 2024 onwards.^[108]

Results of the 2021 United Kingdom census

Sexual orientation (aged 16 and over)
	England and Wales[109]	Northern Ireland[110]
Straight or Heterosexual	89.4%	90.0%
Gay or Lesbian	1.5%	1.2%
Bisexual	1.3%	0.8%
All other sexual orientations	0.3%	0.2%
Not answered	7.5%	7.9%

In the 2021 United Kingdom census, in England and Wales, 262,000 people (0.5%) answered that their gender identity was different from their sex registered at birth, including 0.10% who identified as a trans man, 0.10% as a trans woman, and 0.06% as non-binary.^[111] 1% of people aged 16 to 24 years said that their gender identity was different from their sex registered at birth.^[112]

Abortion in the United Kingdom (however not Northern Ireland) was officially decriminalised under the Abortion Act 1967, allowing women for the first time to get an abortion under numerous medical grounds outlined within the act. Previously, this was outlawed under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 and then the updated Infant Life (Preservation) Act 1929 which only permitted an abortion if the death of a child was "done in good faith for the purpose only of preserving the life of the mother".

In 2020, the number of conceptions which led to an abortion was around 25.3%^[113]

Conceptions leading to an abortion from 1969 to 2020^[114]

Year	Percentage of conceptions leading to an abortion
1969	5.98%
1971	11.32%
1976	15.17%
1981	17.09%
1986	18.02%
1991	19.6%
1996	20.55%
2001	23%
2006	22.26%
2011	20.88%
2016	21.5%
2020	25.29%

General health (self-identified)	England and Wales
	2001[115]		2011[116]		2021[117]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Very good health	35,676,210	68.6%	26,434,409	47.1%	28,827,308	48.4%
Good health			19,094,820	34.1%	20,046,220	33.6%
Fair health	11,568,363	22.2%	7,401,881	13.2%	7,597,001	12.7%
Bad health	4,797,343	9.2%	2,428,668	4.3%	2,412,358	4.0%
Very bad health			716,134	1.3%	714,655	1.2%
Total	52,041,916	100%	56,075,912	100%	59,597,542	100%

Death rate and cause

• 
  Leading causes of death for males
• 
  Leading causes of death for females

• Variety of health issues in graphs
• 
  Obesity rates from 1975 to 2016
• 
  Smoking rates from 1974 to 2020
• 
  Percentage of the public who consume alcohol weekly from 2005 to 2017
• 
  Suicide rate in England and Wales per 100,000 people from 1981 to 2020
• 
  Suicide rates regionally in 2020
• 
  Total deaths to drug misuse in England and Wales
• 
  Drug misuse crude death rate regionally in 2019

Disability status	England and Wales
	1991 (long-term illness)[118]		2001 (limiting long-term illness)[119]		2011[120]		2021[121]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Disabled (under the Equality Act)	6,039,455	11.9%	9,484,856	18.2%	10,048,441	17.9%	10,444,776	17.5%
Disabled under the Equality Act: Day-to-day activities limited a little	–	–	–	–	5,278,729	9.4%	5,985,013	10.0%
Disabled under the Equality Act: Day-to-day activities limited a lot	–	–	–	–	4,769,712	8.5%	4,459,763	7.5%
Not disabled (under the Equality Act)	–	–	–	–	46,027,471	82.1%	49,152,766	82.5%
Not disabled under the Equality Act: No long term physical or mental health conditions	–	–	–	–	46,027,471	82.1%	45,090,197	75.7%
Not disabled under the Equality Act: Has long term physical or mental health condition but day-to-day activities are not limited	–	–	–	–	–	–	4,062,569	6.8%
Total	50,748,000	100%	52,041,916	100%	56,075,912	100%	59,597,542	100%

The unemployment rate for the youth age bracket of 15–24 was 11.2% in 2019 – 13% for males and 9.2% for females.^[122]

• 
  Unemployment rate 1881–2017
• 
  Percentage of labour force working in each (broad) sector
• 
  UK employment by broad industry sector
• 
  UK employment by public or private sector
• 
  Average weekly earnings over time (seasonally adjusted)
• 
  Average household income 1977–2021
• 
  Percentage of young people who are not in education, employment or training (NEET)
• 
  Economically inactive percentage of population in local authorities in 2021
• 
  Gross disposable household income (GDHI) across the UK mapped in 2020
• 
  The Median Individual Disposable income as of 2018
• 
  The Median Gross Household Income as of 2018

Method of transportation	England and Wales (aged 16 and over in employment)
	1981 (10% sample)[123]		1991 (10% sample)[124]		2001[125]		2011[126]		2021[127]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Work mainly at or from home	77,711	3.7%	105,715	4.9%	2,170,547	9.2%	1,422,708	5.4%	8,671,722	31.2%
Underground, metro, light rail, tram	42,717	2.1%	–	–	706,477	3.0%	1,028,800	3.9%	505,311	1.8%
Train	80,751	3.9%	129,325	6.1%	957,713	4.1%	1,371,025	5.2%	529,461	1.9%
Bus, minibus or coach	315,767	15.2%	196,554	9.2%	1,742,300	7.4%	1,949,442	7.3%	1,160,990	4.2%
Taxi	–	–	–	–	121,380	0.5%	137,988	0.5%	200,490	0.7%
Motorcycle, scooter or moped	61,244	2.9%	32,828	1.5%	257,474	1.1%	214,244	0.8%	128,849	0.5%
Driving a car or van	806,735	38.8%	1,148,863	53.7%	13,012,850	55.3%	15,264,527	57.5%	12,524,571	45.1%
Passenger in a car or van	248,400	12.0%	159,317	7.5%	1,472,576	6.3%	1,357,280	5.1%	1,083,447	3.9%
Bicycle	80,084	3.9%	66,739	3.1%	648,433	2.8%	762,334	2.9%	569,295	2.0%
On foot	318,606	15.3%	247,987	11.6%	2,352,386	10.0%	2,846,588	10.7%	2,113,657	7.6%
Other method of travel to work (and Not stated)	47,482	2.3%	50,517	2.4%	86,916	0.4%	171,400	0.6%	285,873	1.0%
Total	2,079,497	100%	2,137,845	100%	23,529,052	100%	26,526,336	100%	27,773,666	100%

• Population pyramids of Method of transportation to work groups in 2021
• 
  Drive car to work
• 
  Work from or at home

Migration to the UK has varied through its history. Irish migration from the Great Famine predominated during the 19th century.^[128] Additionally Jewish migration from Russia also arrived famously into Bethnal Green in London.^[128]

Starting from the 1950s onwards, following on from the British Nationality Act 1948 which de jure allowed the migration of upwards 800,000,000^[129] British subjects who were now British citizens in law, modern mass migration to the United Kingdom began. During this decade West Indians from the Caribbean, those from Jamaica and so on began to arrive.^[130]

During the middle of the 1960s to the 70s, migration flipped in origin to the majority of those arriving being of South Asian origin from the Indian sub-continent. Immigration restrictions, in response to the ever increasing number arriving, were introduced, such as the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968 and the Immigration Act 1971.^[131][130]

Through the 1970s, 80s and early 90s, net migration to the United Kingdom was often negative in terms of numbers, with more people leaving the country, than entering in total.

Since 1994, net migration in numbers has been in the positives, with more people entering the country, rather than leaving.^[29] Migration increased fourfold following the election of Tony Blair in 1997,^[132][133] immigration restrictions were undone such as the primary purpose rule.^[134]

In 2004, along with Ireland and Sweden, Britain was one of the only countries within the EU to not implement 'transitional controls' on migration flows from the newly joined A8 countries from Eastern Europe.^[135][136] Around 453,000 immigrants, which has been revised upwards in recent years,^[136][137] from these new counties were estimated in 2015 to have migrated to the UK.^[138]

UK Immigration Data (YE June 2012 - present)

Period	Non-EU	EU	British	Total Long-Term Immigration
YE Jun 2012	238,000	327,000	74,000	639,000
YE Sep 2012	232,000	322,000	76,000	630,000
YE Dec 2012	230,000	334,000	79,000	643,000
YE Mar 2013	224,000	350,000	75,000	649,000
YE Jun 2013	222,000	373,000	75,000	669,000
YE Sep 2013	233,000	410,000	78,000	720,000
YE Dec 2013	234,000	402,000	76,000	713,000
YE Mar 2014	236,000	414,000	80,000	731,000
YE Jun 2014	236,000	420,000	82,000	737,000
YE Sep 2014	239,000	441,000	81,000	761,000
YE Dec 2014	241,000	457,000	81,000	778,000
YE Mar 2015	240,000	457,000	83,000	780,000
YE Jun 2015	241,000	454,000	83,000	778,000
YE Sep 2015	240,000	453,000	81,000	774,000
YE Dec 2015	238,000	481,000	78,000	797,000
YE Mar 2016	235,000	490,000	78,000	803,000
YE Jun 2016	237,000	521,000	74,000	832,000
YE Sep 2016	238,000	496,000	70,000	804,000
YE Dec 2016	237,000	465,000	70,000	772,000
YE Mar 2017	239,000	447,000	72,000	759,000
YE Jun 2017	241,000	399,000	78,000	718,000
YE Sep 2017	251,000	425,000	78,000	754,000
YE Dec 2017	257,000	411,000	84,000	752,000
YE Mar 2018	261,000	399,000	76,000	736,000
YE Jun 2018	269,000	407,000	81,000	757,000
YE Sep 2018	284,000	397,000	85,000	766,000
YE Dec 2018	330,000	421,000	74,000	825,000
YE Mar 2019	346,000	429,000	74,000	849,000
YE Jun 2019	347,000	413,000	61,000	821,000
YE Sep 2019	351,000	376,000	66,000	793,000
YE Dec 2019	368,000	349,000	71,000	788,000
YE Mar 2020	388,000	347,000	80,000	815,000
YE Jun 2020	331,000	333,000	72,000	736,000
YE Sep 2020	260,000	293,000	53,000	606,000
YE Dec 2020	294,000	316,000	52,000	662,000
YE Mar 2021	297,000	287,000	44,000	629,000
YE Jun 2021	368,000	279,000	62,000	709,000
YE Sep 2021	534,000	249,000	96,000	878,000
YE Dec 2021	611,000	172,000	108,000	891,000
YE Mar 2022	721,000	138,000	110,000	968,000
YE Jun 2022	848,000	121,000	108,000	1,078,000
YE Sep 2022	984,000	114,000	94,000	1,192,000
YE Dec 2022	1,030,000	116,000	88,000	1,234,000
YE Mar 2023	988,000	128,000	87,000	1,202,000
YE Jun 2023	968,000	129,000	84,000	1,180,000

UK Emigration Data (YE June 2012 - present)

Period	Non-EU	EU	British	Total Long-Term Emigration
YE Jun 2012	181,000	140,000	156,000	477,000
YE Sep 2012	178,000	139,000	156,000	473,000
YE Dec 2012	169,000	128,000	151,000	448,000
YE Mar 2013	164,000	127,000	154,000	446,000
YE Jun 2013	166,000	131,000	157,000	454,000
YE Sep 2013	169,000	135,000	158,000	461,000
YE Dec 2013	171,000	141,000	157,000	469,000
YE Mar 2014	170,000	151,000	154,000	475,000
YE Jun 2014	171,000	161,000	157,000	489,000
YE Sep 2014	166,000	171,000	160,000	497,000
YE Dec 2014	154,000	180,000	161,000	494,000
YE Mar 2015	146,000	182,000	156,000	484,000
YE Jun 2015	141,000	187,000	154,000	482,000
YE Sep 2015	137,000	191,000	153,000	481,000
YE Dec 2015	150,000	193,000	151,000	494,000
YE Mar 2016	155,000	196,000	155,000	506,000
YE Jun 2016	155,000	199,000	157,000	511,000
YE Sep 2016	155,000	202,000	157,000	514,000
YE Dec 2016	147,000	213,000	163,000	523,000
YE Mar 2017	143,000	213,000	163,000	519,000
YE Jun 2017	149,000	212,000	157,000	518,000
YE Sep 2017	152,000	233,000	163,000	549,000
YE Dec 2017	144,000	235,000	164,000	544,000
YE Mar 2018	139,000	240,000	165,000	543,000
YE Jun 2018	127,000	249,000	165,000	541,000
YE Sep 2018	129,000	259,000	152,000	539,000
YE Dec 2018	152,000	250,000	147,000	549,000
YE Mar 2019	155,000	274,000	146,000	575,000
YE Jun 2019	167,000	287,000	143,000	597,000
YE Sep 2019	180,000	262,000	150,000	591,000
YE Dec 2019	182,000	269,000	153,000	605,000
YE Mar 2020	222,000	266,000	157,000	645,000
YE Jun 2020	216,000	263,000	146,000	625,000
YE Sep 2020	199,000	249,000	123,000	571,000
YE Dec 2020	192,000	247,000	130,000	569,000
YE Mar 2021	147,000	226,000	123,000	496,000
YE Jun 2021	142,000	211,000	135,000	488,000
YE Sep 2021	121,000	233,000	82,000	436,000
YE Dec 2021	115,000	234,000	76,000	424,000
YE Mar 2022	118,000	244,000	81,000	443,000
YE Jun 2022	128,000	254,000	89,000	471,000
YE Sep 2022	145,000	249,000	89,000	483,000
YE Dec 2022	157,000	239,000	92,000	489,000
YE Mar 2023	171,000	231,000	96,000	497,000
YE Jun 2023	200,000	215,000	93,000	508,000

UK Net migration data (YE June 2012-present)

Period	Non-EU	EU	British	Total Long-Term Net Migration
YE Jun 2012	57000	187000	-83000	162000
YE Sep 2012	54000	183000	-80000	157000
YE Dec 2012	61000	206000	-72000	195000
YE Mar 2013	60000	223000	-79000	204000
YE Jun 2013	56000	242000	-83000	215000
YE Sep 2013	64000	275000	-80000	259000
YE Dec 2013	63000	262000	-81000	244000
YE Mar 2014	67000	263000	-74000	256000
YE Jun 2014	65000	258000	-75000	248000
YE Sep 2014	73000	270000	-79000	264000
YE Dec 2014	87000	277000	-80000	284000
YE Mar 2015	94000	275000	-73000	296000
YE Jun 2015	101000	267000	-72000	296000
YE Sep 2015	103000	262000	-72000	293000
YE Dec 2015	88000	287000	-73000	303000
YE Mar 2016	80000	294000	-77000	298000
YE Jun 2016	82000	322000	-83000	321000
YE Sep 2016	83000	294000	-87000	290000
YE Dec 2016	90000	253000	-94000	249000
YE Mar 2017	97000	235000	-91000	240000
YE Jun 2017	91000	188000	-79000	200000
YE Sep 2017	98000	192000	-85000	205000
YE Dec 2017	114000	176000	-81000	208000
YE Mar 2018	122000	160000	-89000	193000
YE Jun 2018	143000	158000	-84000	216000
YE Sep 2018	155000	138000	-67000	226000
YE Dec 2018	178000	170000	-72000	276000
YE Mar 2019	190000	155000	-72000	274000
YE Jun 2019	179000	126000	-82000	224000
YE Sep 2019	171000	114000	-83000	202000
YE Dec 2019	186000	80000	-82000	184000
YE Mar 2020	166000	81000	-77000	170000
YE Jun 2020	115000	70000	-74000	111000
YE Sep 2020	60000	45000	-70000	35000
YE Dec 2020	101000	70000	-78000	93000
YE Mar 2021	150000	61000	-79000	132000
YE Jun 2021	226000	68000	-73000	221000
YE Sep 2021	413000	16000	14000	443000
YE Dec 2021	496000	-62000	32000	466000
YE Mar 2022	603000	-106000	29000	526000
YE Jun 2022	720000	-133000	20000	607000
YE Sep 2022	839000	-135000	6000	709000
YE Dec 2022	873000	-123000	-4000	745000
YE Mar 2023	817000	-102000	-9000	705000
YE Jun 2023	768000	-86000	-10000	672000

Country of birth was first asked as a census question in 1841.^[139]

Rank	Country of birth	Population[140]
1	India	863,000
2	Poland	818,000
3	Pakistan	547,000
4	Romania	427,000
5	Ireland	360,000
6	Germany	289,000
7	Bangladesh	260,000
8	South Africa	252,000
9	Italy	233,000
10	China	217,000
11	Nigeria	215,000
12	France	185,000
13	Lithuania	168,000
14	Portugal	165,000
15	United States	161,000
16	Spain	159,000
17	Australia	153,000
18	Philippines	153,000
19	Zimbabwe	128,000
20	Bulgaria	128,000
21	Sri Lanka	126,000
22	Jamaica	123,000
23	Kenya	121,000
24	Ghana	114,000
25	Brazil	101,000
26	Somalia	99,000
27	Hungary	98,000
28	Canada	95,000
29	Latvia	89,000
30	Afghanistan	79,000
31	Nepal	76,000
32	Iran	72,000
33	Slovakia	72,000
34	Turkey	71,000
35	Netherlands	68,000
36	Iraq	67,000
37	New Zealand	67,000
38	Greece	66,000
39	Malaysia	61,000
40	Russia	59,000
41	Cyprus	57,000
42	Thailand	54,000
43	Uganda	52,000
44	Taiwan	49,000
45	Syria	48,000
46	Albania	47,000
47	Singapore	44,000
48	Czech Republic	44,000
49	Sweden	42,000
50	Egypt	39,000
51	Japan	39,000
52	Ukraine	38,000
53	Colombia	38,000
54	Belgium	35,000
55	Mauritius	34,000
56	Saudi Arabia	33,000
57	Sudan	33,000
58	Kosovo	29,000
59	Zambia	29,000
60	Malta	27,000
61	Vietnam	27,000

In the 1980s to 1990s, around 12 to 13% of births were born to foreign born mothers. In 2004, this had risen to 20% of births being born to foreign born mothers.^[41] The fertility rate among non-UK born women was 1.98 and among UK born women 1.50 in 2020.

Country of birth from 1951 to 2011
Country of birth	Year
	1951[141]		1961[141]		1971[142]		1981[143]		1991[144]		2001[141]		2011[141]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Europe	–	–	–	–	52,325,821	96.71%	52,939,273	96.13%	53,960,525	95.57%	–	–
United Kingdom	48,168,300	95.8%	50,233,900	95.1%	51,016,100	94.29%	51,706,978	93.89%	52,659,965	93.27%	54,216,400	91.7%	55,188,698	87.34%
Other Europe	–	–	–	–	1,309,721	2.4%	1,232,295,	2.2%	1,300,560	2.3%
Republic of Ireland	–	–	–	–	693,435	1.28%	607,428	1.10%	627,930	1.11%
Other EEC/EU	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	497,985	0.88%
Other Europe	–	–	–	–	616,286	1.13%	624,867	1.13%	174,645	0.30%
Asia	–	–	–	–	547,340	1.01%	765,383	1.38%	925,725	1.63%	–	–
Republic of India	–	–	–	–	313,630	0.57%	391,874	0.71%	410,008	0.72%
Republic of Pakistan	–	–	–	–	137,112	0.25%	188,198	0.34%	234,312	0.41%
Republic of Bangladesh	–	–	–	–	–	–	48,517	–	105,066	0.18%
China	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	23,998	–
Other Asia	–	–	–	–	96,598	0.17%	136,794	0.24%	152,341	0.26%
Africa	–	–	–	–	155,738	0.28%	290,453	0.52%	332,195	0.58%	–	–
East Africa	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	221,170	0.39%
Other Africa	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	111,025	0.2%
Caribbean and Americas	–	–	–	–	296,347	0.54%	295,179	0.53%	264,781	0.46%	–	–
Old Commonwealth	–	–	–	–	136,148	0.25%	152,747	0.27%	180,828	0.32%	–	–
Other (New Commonwealth)	–	–	–	–	114,521	0.21%	162,358	0.29%	194,647	0.34%	–	–
Other: Total[145]	–	–	–	–	526,587	0.97%	461,410	0.83%	600,065	1.06%	–	–
Foreign born: Total	2,118,600	4.2%	2,573,500	4.9%	3,190,300	5.8%	3,429,100	6.2%	3,835,400	6.7%	4,896,600	8.3%	7,993,480	12.7%
Total:	50,286,900	100%	52,807,400	100%	54,102,502	100%	55,066,803	100%	56,458,766	100%	59,113,000	100%	63,182,178	100%

TFR by country of birth[146][d][e]
Country of birth	Year
	1971	1979	1981	1983	1985	1987	1989	1991	1993	1995	1997	2001
United Kingdom	2.30	–	1.70	1.70	1.70	1.80	1.80	1.80	1.70	1.70	1.65	1.6
New Commonwealth	4.00	3.50	2.90	2.80	2.90	2.80	2.70	2.90	2.80	2.96	3.09	2.8
India	4.30	3.90	3.10	2.80	2.90	2.70	2.40	2.60	2.20	2.19	2.32	2.3
Pakistan, Bangladesh	9.30	7.10	6.50	6.10	5.60	5.20	4.70	5.00	5.10	5.20	–	–
Pakistan	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	4.8	–	–	5.30	4.7
Bangladesh	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	3.9	–	–	4.83	3.9
East Africa	2.7	–	2.1	2	2.1	1	1.9	2	1.7	1.8	1.76	1.6
Other Africa	4.2	–	3.4	3.1	3	3.2	4.2	3.1	3.1	3.58	3.52	2.0
West Indies	3.4	2.5	2	1.8	1.8	1.9	1.6	1.9	1.8	2.33	2.57	–
Mediterranean	–	–	2.1	2.1	2.2	2	1.9	2.1	1.7	1.89	1.8	–
Hong Kong, Far East	2.70	–	1.7	1.9	2	1.8	1.7	1.8	1.6	1.6	1.39	–
Other New Commonwealth	–	–	2.3	2.4	2.3	2.5	2.4	2.2	2	2.63	2.94	2.2
Rest of the World	–	–	2.00	1.90	2.00	1.90	1.90	1.90	1.90	2.04	2.09	1.8
Total:	2.38	1.84	1.80	1.76	1.78	1.81	1.80	1.82	1.77	1.72	1.73	1.65

• Population groups by country of birth distributed in 2011 (if not noted)
• 
  Foreign born population in the UK in 2021
• 
  Born in Poland
• 
  Born in Lithuania
• 
  Born in France
• 
  Born in South Africa

• Country of birth population pyramids in 2021 in England and Wales
• 
  UK born
• 
  Foreign born: Total
• 
  Africa born
• 
  Middle East and Asia born
• 
  Other Europe born

Population movements of the country have fluctuated over time, in the 19th century with the urbanisation of the country, large amounts of people moved to the capital and the nearby industrial cities, but in recent years there has been a general trend of 'de-urbanisation' as parts of the population have moved back to the countryside. An example of recent large scale internal movement in the 21st century has been the departure of 220,000 White British Londoners to other areas of rural England and Wales over the 2000s^[147] and over the 2010s around a total of 550,000 people left the city.^[148] Demographically by age, the people leaving the city more than entering tend to be in their 30s and 40s while people entering in their 20s.^[148]

Ethnic Group	Year
	1981 estimates[149]		1991 census[150][t 1]		2001 census[151][152][153]		2011 census[154][155][156][157]		2021/2022 census[158][159][160][161][f]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
White: Total	52,609,977	95.9%	53,062,288	94.5%	54,153,898	92.1%	55,073,145	87.2%	55,592,837	83.0%
White: British	–	–	–	–	52,728,717	89.7%	52,320,080	82.8%	51,406,667	76.8%
White: Irish	–	–	837,464	1.5%
White: Gypsy / Traveller / Irish Traveller	–	–	–	–	1,710	–	62,981	0.1%	73,721	0.1%
White: Roma	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	102,510	0.1%
White: Other	–	–	–	–	1,423,471	2.4%	2,690,084	4.3%	4,009,940	6.0%
Asian / Asian British: Total	1,282,062	2.4%	1,911,922	3.5%	2,578,826	4.4%	4,373,661	6.9%	5,758,104	8.6%
Asian / Asian British: Indian	627,842	1.2%	876,997	1.6%	1,053,411	1.79%	1,452,156	2.3%	1,927,150	2.9%
Asian / Asian British: Pakistani	344,529	0.6%	500,295	0.9%	747,285	1.27%	1,174,602	1.9%	1,662,286	2.5%
Asian / Asian British: Bangladeshi	87,762	0.2%	171,516	0.3%	283,063	0.48%	451,529	0.7%	652,535	1.0%
Asian / Asian British: Chinese	111,488	0.2%	160,806	0.3%	247,403	0.42%	433,150	0.7%	502,216	0.8%
Asian / Asian British: Other Asian	110,441	0.2%	202,308	0.4%	247,664	0.42%	862,224	1.4%	1,013,917	1.5%
Black / Black British: Total[t 2]	707,675	1.3%	929,633	1.7%	1,148,738	2%	1,905,506	3%	2,485,724	3.7%
Black / Black British: African	141,385	0.3%	219,169	0.4%	485,277	0.87%	1,021,973	1.6%	1,555,086	2.4%
Black / Black British: Caribbean	422,522	0.8%	522,242	0.9%	565,876	0.96%	599,197	0.9%	629,897	0.9%
Black / Black British: Other Black	143,768	0.3%	188,222	0.4%	97,585	0.17%	284,336	0.5%	300,741	0.4%
Mixed / British Mixed	–	–	–	–	677,117	1.2%	1,250,414	2%	1,793,257	2.7%
Other: Total	214,001	0.4%	302,199	0.5%	230,615	0.4%	580,049	0.9%	1,310,636	2.0%
Total:	54,813,715	100%	56,206,042	100%	58,789,194	100%	63,182,775	100%	66,940,563	100%

Note:

• Ethnicities of United Kingdom and in its constituent countries
• 
  England
• 
  Wales
• 
  Scotland
• 
  Northern Ireland

Estimates and census figures of the growth of the ethnic minority population in the United Kingdom^[164][g]

	Number	Percentage
1939*[165]	7,000	—
1951*	50,000	0.1%
1961*	400,000	0.8%
1971*	1,370,000	2.5%
1981*	2,090,000	3.9%
1986*	2,470,000	4.5%
1991	3,015,050	5.5%
1993*	3,200,000	5.7%
1998*	3,700,000	6.5%
2000*	4,040,000	7.1%
2001	4,635,296	7.88%
2011	8,108,626	12.83%
2021/2022	11,347,726	16.95%

Geographic distribution

• Distribution of ethnic groups within the United Kingdom in the 2011 census
• 
  White: Total (87.12%)
• 
  White: British (81.5%)^[h]
• 
  White: Irish (0.95%)^[h]
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Total (6.92%)
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Indian (2.3%)
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Pakistani (1.86%)
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Bangladeshi (0.71%)
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Chinese (0.69%)
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Other Asian (1.36%)
• 
  Black/Black British: Total (3.01%)
• 
  Black/Black British: Caribbean (0.94%)
• 
  Other: Arab (0.40%)

Age structure of ethnic groups

• Age structure of ethnic groups in England and Wales in the 2021 census
• 
  White: Total
• 
  White British
• 
  White Irish
• 
  Other White
• 
  Ethnic minority: Total
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Total
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Indian
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Pakistani
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Bangladeshi
• 
  Asian/Asian British: Chinese
• 
  Other Asian
• 
  Black: Total
• 
  Black/Black British: Caribbean
• 
  Black/Black British: African
• 
  Other Blacks
• 
  Mixed/British Mixed: Total
• 
  Other ethnic group: Total
• 
  Other: Any other ethnic group
• 
  Other: Arab

Ethnicity of school pupils

Ethnicity of school pupils in Great Britain

Ethnic group	School year[166][167][168][169]
	1967[170]		2004		2008		2012		2016		2021
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
White: Total	–	–	6,648,681	84.2%	6,406,400	82.9%	6,204,628	80.3%	6,245,235	77.8%	7,001,982	73.5%
White: British	–	–	6,468,459	82%	6,132,309	79.4%	5,867,768	75.9%	5,763,533	71.8%	6,313,543	66.3%
White: Irish	–	–	26,100	0.3%	23,620	0.3%	21,805	0.3%	21,127	0.3%	22,994	0.2%
White: Roma/Irish Traveller	–	–	6,500	–	13,295	0.2%	21,308	0.3%	29,184	0.4%	36,845	0.4%
White: Other	–	–	147,622	1.9%	237,176	3.1%	293,747	3.8%	431,391	5.4%	628,600	6.6%
Asian / Asian British: Total	–	–	491,953	6.2%	587,288	7.6%	685,135	8.9%	792,382	9.9%	1,083,920	11.4%
Asian / Asian British: Indian	–	–	156,563	2%	165,320	2.1%	175,964	2.3%	203,785	2.5%	299,136	3.1%
Asian / Asian British: Pakistani	–	–	189,283	2.4%	226,285	2.9%	267,230	3.5%	309,078	3.8%	398,789	4.2%
Asian / Asian British: Bangladeshi	–	–	72,473	0.9%	90,161	1.2%	106,800	1.4%	121,100	1.5%	156,301	1.64%
Asian / Asian British: Chinese	–	–	25,902	0.3%	27,893	0.4%	28,766	0.4%	33,342	0.4%	53,318	0.55%
Asian / Asian British: Other Asians	–	–	47,732	0.6%	77,629	1%	106,375	1.4%	125,077	1.6%	176,376	1.85%
Black / Black British: Total	–	–	247,024	3.1%	298,391	3.9%	348,918	4.5%	400,528	5%	502,344	5.2%
Black: Caribbean	–	–	96,695	1.22%	92,876	1.2%	92,076	1.2%	87,057	1.1%	84,024	0.88%
Black: African	–	–	122,429	1.55%	172,400	2.2%	215,812	2.8%	263,079	3.3%	352,285	3.7%
Black: Other Blacks	–	–	27,900	0.35%	33,115	0.4%	41,030	0.5%	50,392	0.6%	66,035	0.69%
Mixed / British Mixed	–	–	186,314	2.4%	242,511	3.1%	305,936	4%	382,730	4.8%	583,723	6.1%
Other: Total	–	–	82,280	1%	84,095	1.1%	104,187	1.3%	129,536	1.6%	199,770	2.1%
Unclassified	–	–	230,573	2.9%	104,012	1.3%	77,862	1%	81,146	1%	153,499	1.6%
Non-White: Total	144,000	–	1,007,571	15.8%	1,212,285		1,444,176		1,705,176		2,369,757	26.5%
Total:	–	100%	7,891,306	100%	7,723,472	100%	7,726,651	100%	8,031,557	100%	9,526,070	100%

• Ethnicity of school pupils with England and its administrative districts in the school year of 2021/2022
• 
  White: 71.4%
• 
  White British: 63.9%

Ethnicity of live births and total fertility rate

Ethnicity of live births in England and Wales^[171]

Ethnic Group	Year
	2005[172]		2011		2015		2019
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
White: Total	451,514	69.5% (80.3%)	536,021	74.49%	507,829	72.29%	452,248	70.67%
White: British	418,052	64.4% (75.2%[i])	476,328	66.19%	432,114	62.05%	374,056	58.45%
White: Other	33,462	5.1%	59,693	8.29%	75,715	10.87%	78,192	12.22%
Asian / Asian British: Total	56,065	8.7%	76,599	10.64%	76,976	11.05%	73,874	11.54%
Asian / Asian British: Indian	16,053	2.5%	22,725	3.15%	21,582	3.09%	20,627	3.22%
Asian / Asian British: Pakistani	24,290	3.7%	27,948	3.88%	28,142	4.04%	27,573	4.31%
Asian / Asian British: Bangladeshi	8,241	1.3%	9,847	1.36%	9,889	1.42%	9,505	1.49%
Other Asians	7,481	1.2%	16,079	2.23%	17,363	2.49%	16,169	2.52%
Black / Black British: Total	32,701	5%	36,151	5.02%	33,461	4.8%	30,846	4.81%
Black: African	19,756	3%	24,457	3.39%	23,483	3.37%	21,589	3.37%
Black: Caribbean	7,517	1.2%	6,943	0.96%	5,964	0.85%	5,480	0.86%
Other Blacks	5,428	0.8%	4,751	0.66%	4,014	0.57%	3,777	0.59%
Mixed / British Mixed	22,606	3.5%	34,643	4.81%	40,433	5.8%	41,918	6.54%
Other: Total	15,232	2.4%	13,320	1.85%	15,625	2.24%	15,523	2.42%
Not Stated	70,303	10.8%	22,848	3.17%	22,041	3.16%	25,578	4.00%
Total:	649,371	100%	719,582	100%	696,365	100%	639,987	100%

• Percentage of births by ethnic group within the United Kingdom in 2021
• 
  White British (62.2%, including non-stated)

Numerous predictions and projections of the future ethnic demography of the United Kingdom have been made over the years.

In 2010, academic David Coleman produced research postulating a future demographic decline of the White British in Britain, indicating that they would become a minority in Birmingham and London during the 2020s.^[173] He also estimated that around 2056 to 2066, the trend of a declining share of the white populace will result in the United Kingdom having an overall white minority.^[174][175]

In Prospect, he outlined four projections for a majority-minority scenario within the United Kingdom;^[176]

• If net immigration trends (in 2010) continued its overall trend of 254,000 a year and net emigration of the White British was 74,000 a year (180,000 per year), the White British would decline to 59% of the total population by 2051, 'Other Whites' projected to be at 10% and non-Whites projected to be 31% of the population. By 2066 this would inevitably lead to the White British being a minority of the population.
• If migration to the United Kingdom was to decline to a net inflow of 80,000 per year, the White British would be 63% of the population by 2051 and would fall below 50% in 2080.
• Using a cross-party group of MP's recommendation of 'balanced migration', where there is neither a net inflow or outflow, where immigration only consists of 74,000 a year and emigration of the White British the same, the White British would be 67% of the population by 2051 and then fall below 50% by the end of the century.
• If there is no emigration of citizens and no immigration to the United Kingdom ('natural change' scenario), then the White British would remain at around 80% of the population by 2051 and would still remain the majority by the end of the century, albeit a reduced percentage (roughly around 75 – 70%)
• A fifth estimate, made by the Philip Rees and the University of Leeds, estimate that if assumptions about ethnic self-identification are taken into account, and that there is a net outflow of citizens at 38,000 a year, most of which are non-white and long term net migration like mentioned turns negative, this would result in the White British remaining at around 80% of the population by 2051, 20% of which would be ethnic minorities and 15% of that 20% would be non-white.

• Population groupings over time with projections up to 2051 by David Coleman (2010)
• 
  White population over time
• 
  Ethnic minority population (non-whites)

In 2001, the question of religious adherence was asked for the first time since 1851 in the United Kingdom Census.^[177]

The traditional religion in the United Kingdom is Christianity. In England the established church is the Church of England (Anglican). In Scotland, the Church of Scotland (a Presbyterian Church) is regarded as the 'national church' but there is not an established church.

In Wales there is no established church, with the Church in Wales having been disestablished in 1920. Likewise, in Ireland, the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871. In Northern Ireland and parts of Western Scotland there are lingering sectarian divides between Roman Catholic and Protestant communities.^[178]

The table below shows data regarding religion for the 2001, 2011 and 2021/22 censuses:

Religion	2001[179][180][181][182]		2011[183][184][185][186]		2021/2022[187][188][189]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Christianity	42,079,417	71.58%	37,583,962	59.49%	31,149,224	46.53%
Islam	1,591,126	2.71%	2,786,635	4.41%	3,998,875	5.97%
Hinduism	558,810	0.95%	835,394	1.32%	1,066,894	1.59%
Sikhism	336,149	0.57%	432,429	0.68%	535,517	0.79%
Judaism	266,740	0.45%	269,568	0.43%	277,613	0.41%
Buddhism	151,816	0.26%	261,584	0.41%	289,551	0.43%
Other religion	178,837	0.30%	262,774	0.42%	388,789	0.58%
No religion	13,626,299	23.18%	16,221,509	25.67%	25,273,945	37.75%
Religion not stated			4,528,323	7.17%	3,960,980	5.91%
Total population	58,789,194	100.00%	63,182,178	100.00%	66,940,560	100.00%

• Religion in the 2011 census
• 
  Christians (59.5%)

• Religious groups population pyramids in England and Wales in 2021
• 
  Christian
• 
  No Religion
• 
  None stated/answered
• 
  Muslim
• 
  Hindu
• 
  Sikh
• 
  Buddhist
• 
  Jewish
• 
  Other Religion

In the 2011 Census, rather than select one of the specified religions offered on the Census form, many people chose to write in their own religion. Some of these religions were reassigned to one of the main religions offered. In England and Wales, 241,000 people belonged to religious groups which did not fall into any of the main religions.^[190] The largest of these were Pagans (56,620), Spiritualists (39,061) and Jains (20,288).^[191] Despite its high-profile nature there were only 2,418 Scientologists.^[192] The census also recorded 176,632 people stating their religion as Jedi Knight and 6,242 people as Heavy Metal^[193] after a campaign by Metal Hammer.^[191] These returns were classified as "No religion", along with Atheist, Agnostic, Humanist, and Free Thinker.^[193] Those who ticked Heathen who had been categorised as no religion in 2001 were categorised as other.^[193] It is unclear how the ONS treated people who ticked "Other" but did not write in any religion.^[193]

In 2012 the British Social Attitudes Survey found the highest number to be non-religious (48%) followed by Christians (46%) with another six per cent identifying otherwise. Discrepancies found between surveys may be the result of differences in phrasing, question order, and data collection method.^[194]

Pew Research Center has found that by 2050 on all scenarios, the Muslim population of the United Kingdom will rise, depending on the scenario the percentage of the population which will be Muslim will either be 9.7% in a zero migration scenario, 16.7% in a medium migration scenario or 17.2% in a high migration scenario.^[195]

The United Kingdom's de facto official language is English which is spoken as a first language by 95% of the population. Six regional languages—Scots, Ulster-Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Irish and Scottish Gaelic—are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Abilities in these languages (other than Cornish) for those aged three and above were recorded in the census of 2011 as follows.^{[196][197][198]}

Ability	2011
	Wales		Scotland				Northern Ireland
	Welsh		Scottish Gaelic		Scots		Irish		Ulster-Scots
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
Understands but does not speak, read or write	157,792	5.15%	23,357	0.46%	267,412	5.22%	70,501	4.06%	92,040	5.30%
Speaks, reads and writes	430,717	14.06%	32,191	0.63%	1,225,622	23.95%	71,996	4.15%	17,228	0.99%
Speaks but does not read or write	80,429	2.63%	18,966	0.37%	179,295	3.50%	24,677	1.42%	10,265	0.59%
Speaks and reads but does not write	45,524	1.49%	6,218	0.12%	132,709	2.59%	7,414	0.43%	7,801	0.45%
Reads but does not speak or write	44,327	1.45%	4,646	0.09%	107,025	2.09%	5,659	0.33%	11,911	0.69%
Other combination of skills	40,692	1.33%	1,678	0.03%	17,381	0.34%	4,651	0.27%	95	0.06%
No skills	2,263,975	73.90%	5,031,167	98.30%	3,188,779	62.30%	1,550,813	89.35%	1,595,507	91.92%
Total	3,063,456	100.00%	5,118,223	100.00%	5,118,223	100.00%	1,735,711	100.00%	1,735,711	100.00%
Can speak	562,016	18.35%	57,602	1.13%	1,541,693	30.12%	104,943	6.05%	35,404	2.04%
Has some ability	799,481	26.10%	87,056	1.70%	1,929,444	37.70%	184,898	10.65%	140,204	8.08%

Cornish is spoken by around 2,500 people. In the 2011 census, 464 respondents aged three and over in Cornwall said that Cornish was their main language, amounting to 0.09% of the total population of Cornwall aged three and over.

After English, Polish was the second most common language given in the United Kingdom census 2011. 618,091 respondents aged three and over said that Polish was their main language, amounting to 1.01% of the total population of the United Kingdom aged three and over.

The French language is spoken in some parts of the Channel Islands although the islands, like the Isle of Man, are not part of the United Kingdom.^[199] British Sign Language is also common.

Proficiency in English

Language proficiency	England and Wales
	2011[200]		2021[201]
	Number	%	Number	%
Main language is English	49,808,185	92.3%	52,569,816	91.1%
Main language is not English	4,153,266	7.7%	5,134,447	8.9%
Can speak English very well	1,722,197	3.2%	2,255,542	3.9%
Can speak English well	1,567,919	2.9%	1,838,559	3.2%
Cannot speak English well	725,639	1.3%	879,782	1.5%
Cannot speak English	137,511	0.3%	160,564	0.3%
Total	53,961,451	100%	57,704,263	100%

Respondents to the 2011 UK census gave their national identities as follows.

National identity	Years
	2011[202][203][204]					2021[205]
	United Kingdom	Country				Country
		England	Scotland	Wales	N. Ireland	England	Wales
English only	51.41%	60.38%	2.28%	11.22%	0.60%	15.3%	9.1%
Scottish only	5.93%	0.79%	62.43%	0.50%	0.37%	0.4%	0.4%
Welsh only	3.26%	0.55%	0.15%	57.51%	0.06%	0.3%	55.2%
Northern Irish only	0.81%	0.21%	0.33%	0.14%	20.94%	0.1%	0.1%
British only	18.77%	19.19%	8.37%	16.95%	39.89%	56.8%	18.5%
+ English and British only	7.82%	9.09%	1.26%	1.54%	0.27%	14.3%	1.8%
+ Scottish and British only	1.67%	0.15%	18.29%	0.07%	0.09%	0.2%	0.1%
+ Welsh and British only	0.44%	0.11%	0.06%	7.11%	0.02%	0.2%	8.1%
Northern Irish and British only	0.22%	0.03%	0.15%	0.02%	6.17%	0.1%	0.0%
Other combination of UK identities only (excludes Irish)	0.45%	0.37%	1.01%	1.10%	0.13%	0.4%	1.3%
Other identity and at least one UK identity	0.97%	0.90%	1.25%	0.43%	3.05%	1.9%	1.1%
Irish only	1.31%	0.64%	0.41%	0.32%	25.26%	0.5%	0.3%
Other	6.94%	7.59%	4.01%	3.10%	3.12%	9.5%	4%
Total	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%

• Identity group population pyramids in England and Wales in 2021
• 
  English only
• 
  British only
• 
  Welsh only
• 
  English and British identity
• 
  UK and Non-UK identity
• 
  Non-UK identity

In the present day each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system, with power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland being devolved.

Universal state education in England and Wales was introduced for primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900.^[206] Education is mandatory from the ages of 5 to 18, The majority of children are educated in state-sector schools,^[207] only a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. Despite a fall in actual numbers, the proportion of children in England attending private schools rose slightly from 7.1% to 7.3% between 2004 and 2007.^[207]

Scotland first legislated for universal provision of education in 1696. Four per cent of children in Scotland attend private schools, a rate which has remained relatively stable since 2015.^[208][209]

In Wales, one of the most notable distinctive features of education in Wales is the emphasis on the Welsh language – lessons in which are compulsory for all until the age of 16. While a significant minority of students (15.7% in the 2014\15 academic year) are taught primarily through the medium of Welsh.^[210]

Level of qualification	England and Wales (aged 16 and over, not in education)
	2001[211]		2011[212]		2021[213]
	Number	%	Number	%	Number	%
No qualifications	10,937,042	29.1	10,307,327	22.7%	8,827,472	18.2%
Level 1 and entry level qualifications	6,230,033	16.6	6,047,384	13.3%	4,679,223	9.6%
Level 2 qualifications	7,288,074	19.4	6,938,433	15.3%	6,493,490	13.4%
Apprenticeship	–	–	1,631,777	3.6%	2,590,252	5.3%
Level 3 qualifications	3,110,135	8.3	5,617,802	12.3%	8,225,629	16.9%
Level 4 qualifications or above	7,432,962	19.8	12,383,477	27.2%	16,413,231	33.8%
Other qualifications	2,609,192	6.9	2,570,580	5.7%	1,337,076	2.8%
Total	37,607,438	100%	45,496,780	100%	48,566,373	100%

• "Census 2001". Religion in Britain. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2005.
• "Census 2001". 390,000 Jedis There Are. Retrieved 6 September 2005.
• Census 2001 website
• Abstract (1833). Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to an act passed in the eleventh year of the reign of His Majesty King George IV intituled an act for taking an account of the population of Great Britain, and the increase and diminution thereof. Population Register Abstract 1831. British Parliamentary Papers, 38.
• Arkell, T. (1992). An Examination of the Poll Taxes of the late Seventeenth Century, the Marriage Duty Act and Gregory King.
• K. Schürer, & T. Arkell (eds.), Surveying the People: the interpretation and use of document sources for the study of population in the late seventeenth century (pp. 142–177). Oxford: Leopard's Hill Press.
• Boulton, J. (1992). "The Marriage Duty Act and parochial registration in London, 1695–1706". In: K. Schürer, & T. Arkell (eds.), Surveying the People: the interpretation and use of document sources for the study of population in the late seventeenth century; pp. 222–252. Oxford: Leopard's Hill Press.
• Boulton, J. (1993). "Clandestine marriage in London: an examination of the neglected urban variable", in: Urban History; 20, pp. 191–210.