Genetic history of West Africa

The genetic history of West Africa encompasses the genetic history of the people of West Africa. The Sahara served as a trans-regional passageway and place of dwelling for people in Africa during various humid phases^[1]^[2]^[3] and periods throughout the history of Africa.^[4]^[5]

Archaic human DNA

Archaic traits found in human fossils of West Africa (e.g., Iho Eleru fossils, which dates to 13,000 BP) and Central Africa (e.g., Ishango fossils, which dates between 25,000 BP and 20,000 BP) may have developed as a result of admixture between archaic humans and modern humans or may be evidence of late-persisting early modern humans.^[6] While Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain, archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.^[6]

Ancient DNA

As of 2017, human ancient DNA has not been found in the region of West Africa.^[7] As of 2020, human ancient DNA has not been forthcoming in the region of West Africa.^[8]

In 4000 BP (or even earlier during the Mesolithic), there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian Peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain) occurred. Based on a small trace presence of sub-Saharan African components in select samples from Iberia, and the discovery of a mitogenome L2a1 found in one individual, while all others belonged to European mitochondrial haplogroups.^[9]

In Granada, a Muslim (Moor) of the Cordoba Caliphate,^[10] who was of haplogroups E1b1a1 and H1+16189,^[11] as well as estimated to date between 900 CE and 1000 CE, and a Morisco,^[10] who was of haplogroup L2e1,^[11] as well as estimated to date between 1500 CE and 1600 CE, were both found to be of Sub-Saharan West African (i.e., Gambian) and Iberian descent.^[10]

Y-Chromosomal DNA

Eight male individuals from Guinea Bissau, two male individuals from Niger, one male individual from Mali, and one male individual from Cabo Verde carried haplogroup A1a.^[12]

As a result of haplogroup D0, a basal branch of haplogroup DE, being found in three Nigerian men, it may be the case that haplogroup DE, as well as its sublineages D0 and E, originated in Africa.^[13]

As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearing haplogroup E1b1a-V38, likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west.^[14] E1b1a1-M2 likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.^[15]

Mitochondrial DNA

Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L3 emerged in East Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modern West Africans, Central Africans, and non-Africans.^[16] Amid the Holocene, including the Holocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa.^[16] As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations into Europe and Asia; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe and Asia.^[16] During the early period of the Holocene, 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into North Africa by West Africans and the other 50% was introduced by East Africans.^[16] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into North Africa than East Africans.^[16] Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans, largely in the region of Arabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.^[16] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.^[16] During the early period of the Holocene, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe, mostly in Iberia.^[16] West Africans probably migrated, across Sahelian Africa, North Africa, and the Strait of Gibraltar, into Europe, and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.^[16] During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.^[16]

Around 18,000 BP, Mende people, along with Gambian peoples, grew in population size.^[17]

In 15,000 BP, Niger-Congo speakers may have migrated from the Sahelian region of West Africa, along the Senegal River, and introduced L2a1 into North Africa, resulting in modern Mauritanian peoples and Berbers of Tunisia inheriting it.^[18]

Between 11,000 BP and 10,000 BP, Yoruba people and Esan people grew in population size.^[17]

As early as 11,000 years ago, Sub-Saharan West Africans, bearing macrohaplogroup L (e.g., L1b1a11, L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1, L2a1k, L3d1b1a), may have migrated through North Africa and into Europe, mostly into southern Europe (e.g., Iberia).^[19]

Autosomal DNA

During the early period of the Holocene, in 9000 BP, Khoisan-related peoples admixed with the ancestors of the Igbo people, possibly in the western Sahara.^[20]^[21]

Between 2000 BP and 1500 BP, Nilo-Saharan-speakers may have migrated across the Sahel, from East Africa into West Africa, and admixed with Niger-Congo-speaking Berom people.^[22] In 710 CE, West African-related populations (e.g., Niger-Congo-speaking Berom people, Bantu-speakers) and East African-related populations (Nilo-Saharan-speaking Ethiopians, Nilo-Saharan-speaking Chadians) admixed with one another in northern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.^[23]

Fan et al. (2019) found that the Fulani people show genetic affinity to isolated Afroasiatic-speaking groups in Eastern Africa, specifically Omotic-speakers such as the Aari people. While the Fulani have nearly exclusive indigenous African ancestry (defined by West and East African ancestry), they also show traces of West-Eurasian-like admixture, supporting an ancestral homeland somewhere in North or Eastern Africa, and westwards expansion during the Neolithic, possibly caused by the arrival and expansion of West-Eurasian-related groups.^[24] Fan et al. (2023) found that the Fulani, who have 50% Amhara-related and 50% Tikari-related ancestry as well as occupy regions such as West Africa, Central Africa, and the Sudan as nomadic herders, may have initially been Afroasiatic speakers that subsequently underwent language replacement and became Niger-Congo speakers.^[25]

Medical DNA

The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo adaptation are regulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate to diet, physiology, and evolutionary pressures from pathogens.^[26] Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation, Duffy blood group, increased rates of G6PD deficiency, sickle cell disease) to malaria has been found among Sub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.^[26] Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of the Duffy-null genotype.^[27]

Pediculus

During the Copper Age and early Islamic era of ancient Israel, West Africans may have migrated into ancient Israel and introduced head louse from West Africa.^[28]

Sickle Cell

Amid the Green Sahara, the mutation for sickle cell originated in the Sahara^[14] or in the northwest forest region of western Central Africa (e.g., Cameroon)^[14]^[29] by at least 7,300 years ago,^[14]^[29] though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.^[30]^[29] The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g., Cameroon/Central African Republic and Benin/Senegal haplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modern West Africans, bearing haplogroups E1b1a1-L485 and E1b1a1-U175 or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.^[14] West Africans (e.g., Yoruba and Esan of Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through the northeastern region of Africa into the western region of Arabia.^[14] West Africans (e.g., Mende of Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,^[31]^[14] may have migrated into Mauritania (77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, into North Africa, and from North Africa, into Southern Europe, Turkey, and a region near northern Iraq and southern Turkey.^[31] Some may have migrated into and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes into Basra, Iraq, where both occur equally.^[31] West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%), Jordan (80%), Lebanon (73%), Oman (52.1%), and Egypt (80.8%).^[31]

Schistosomes

According to Steverding (2020), while not definite: Near the African Great Lakes, schistosomes (e.g., S. mansoni, S. haematobium) underwent evolution.^[32] Subsequently, there was an expansion alongside the Nile.^[32] From Egypt, the presence of schistosomes may have expanded, via migratory Yoruba people, into Western Africa.^[32] Thereafter, schistosomes may have expanded, via migratory Bantu peoples, into the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Southern Africa, Central Africa).^[32]

Thalassemia

Through pathways taken by caravans, or via travel amid the Almovarid period, a population (e.g., Sub-Saharan West Africans) may have introduced the –29 (A → G) β-thalassemia mutation (found in notable amounts among African-Americans) into the North African region of Morocco.^[33]

Domesticated animal DNA

While the Niger-Congo migration may have been from West Africa into Kordofan, possibly from Kordofan, Sudan, Niger-Congo speakers accompanied by undomesticated helmeted guineafowls, may have traversed into West Africa, domesticated the helmeted guineafowls by 3000 BCE, and via the Bantu expansion, traversed into other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa).^[34]

References

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^ Drake, Nick; Breeze, Paul (2016). "Climate Change and Modern Human Occupation of the Sahara from MIS 6-2". Africa from MIS 6-2. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Africa from MIS 6-2. pp. 103–122. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_6. ISBN 978-94-017-7519-9. S2CID 131383927.
^ El-Shenawy, Mohammed I.; et al. (2018). "Speleothem evidence for the greening of the Sahara and its implications for the early human dispersal out of sub-Saharan Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 188: 67–76. Bibcode:2018QSRv..188...67E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.03.016. S2CID 134694090.
^ Scheele, Judith (Aug 2016). Crossroads Regions: The Sahara. Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935369.013.18. ISBN 978-0-19-993536-9.
^ Wippel, Steffen (2020). "The Sahara as a Bridge, Not a Barrier: An Essay and Book Review on Recent Transregional Perspectives". Neue Politische Literatur. 65 (3): 449–472. doi:10.1007/s42520-020-00318-y. S2CID 224855920.
^ ^a ^b Bergström A, Stringer C, Hajdinjak M, Scerri EM, Skoglund P (February 2021). "Origins of modern human ancestry". Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..229B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. S2CID 231883210.
^ Scerri, Eleanor (26 October 2017). "The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137. ISBN 9780190277734. OCLC 1013546425. S2CID 133758803.
^ Jeong, Choongwon (2020). "Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study: Beyond Human Migration in and Around Europe". The Handbook of Mummy Studies. Springer. pp. 1–16. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-1614-6_10-1. ISBN 978-981-15-1614-6. OCLC 1182512815. S2CID 226555687.
^ González-Fortes, G.; et al. (2019). "A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1895): 20182288. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2288. PMC 6364581. PMID 30963949. S2CID 104296971.
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^ Batini, Chiara; et al. (September 2011). "Supplementary Data: Signatures of the Preagricultural Peopling Processes in Sub-Saharan Africa as Revealed by the Phylogeography of Early Y Chromosome Lineages". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28 (9): 2603–2613. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr089. hdl:10400.13/4486. ISSN 0737-4038. OCLC 748733133. PMID 21478374. S2CID 11190055.
^ Haber, Marc; et al. (August 2019). "A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa". Genetics. 212 (4): 1421–1428. doi:10.1534/genetics.119.302368. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMC 6707464. PMID 31196864. S2CID 189817793.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (April 2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics. 102 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. ISSN 0002-9297. OCLC 7353789016. PMC 5985360. PMID 29526279.
^ Trombetta, Beniamino; et al. (June 2015). "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (7): 1940–1950. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv118. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMC 4524485. PMID 26108492.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.
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^ Frigi, Sabeh; et al. (August 2010). "Ancient local evolution of African mtDNA haplogroups in Tunisian Berber populations". Human Biology. 82 (4): 367–384. doi:10.3378/027.082.0402. ISSN 0018-7143. JSTOR 41466688. OCLC 4668535228. PMID 21082907. S2CID 27594333.
^ Podgorná, Eliška; et al. (November 2013). "The genetic impact of the lake chad basin population in North Africa as documented by mitochondrial diversity and internal variation of the L3e5 haplogroup". Annals of Human Genetics. 77 (6): 513–523. doi:10.1111/ahg.12040. ISSN 0003-4800. OCLC 6998015647. PMID 25069842. S2CID 24672148.
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^ ^a ^b Pfennig, Aaron; et al. (March 29, 2023). "Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations". Genome Biology and Evolution. 15 (4): evad054. doi:10.1093/gbe/evad054. OCLC 9817135458. PMC 10118306. PMID 36987563. S2CID 257803764.
^ Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health" (PDF). Cell Genomics. 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMC 10025516. PMID 36950382. S2CID 257458855.
^ Amanzougaghene, Nadia; et al. (October 14, 2016). "High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice". PLOS ONE. 11 (10): e0164659. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1164659A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659. PMC 5065229. PMID 27741281. S2CID 14033603.
^ ^a ^b ^c Esoh K, Wonkam A (April 2021). "Evolutionary history of sickle-cell mutation: implications for global genetic medicine". Human Molecular Genetics. 30 (R1): R119–R128. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab004. PMC 8117455. PMID 33461216.
^ Laval G, Peyrégne S, Zidane N, Harmant C, Renaud F, Patin E, et al. (March 2019). "Recent Adaptive Acquisition by African Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers of the Late Pleistocene Sickle-Cell Mutation Suggests Past Differences in Malaria Exposure". American Journal of Human Genetics. 104 (3): 553–561. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.02.007. PMC 6407493. PMID 30827499.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Yaseen NT, Al-Mamoori HS, Hassan MK (January 2020). "Sickle β-globin haplotypes among patients with sickle cell anemia in Basra, Iraq: A cross-sectional study". Iraqi Journal of Hematology. 9 (1): 23. doi:10.4103/ijh.ijh_20_19. S2CID 216082225.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Steverding, Dietmar (December 2020). "The spreading of parasites by human migratory activities". Virulence. 11 (1): 1177–1191. doi:10.1080/21505594.2020.1809963. PMC 7549983. PMID 32862777.
^ Agouti, Imane; et al. (December 2008). "Molecular basis of ß-thalassemia in Morocco: possible origins of the molecular heterogeneity" (PDF). Genetic Testing. 12 (4): 563–568. doi:10.1089/gte.2008.0058. PMID 18976160. S2CID 46000591.
^ Murunga, Philip; et al. (2018). "Mitochondrial DNA D-Loop Diversity of the Helmeted Guinea Fowls in Kenya and Its Implications on HSP70 Gene Functional Polymorphism". BioMed Research International. 2018: 1–12. doi:10.1155/2018/7314038. OCLC 8754386965. PMC 6258102. PMID 30539018. S2CID 54463512.

[Osborne-1] Osborne, Anne H.; et al. (October 2008). "A humid corridor across the Sahara for the migration of early modern humans out of Africa 120,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (43): 16444–16447. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10516444O. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804472105. PMC 2575439. PMID 18936490. S2CID 10418009.

[Drake-2] Drake, Nick; Breeze, Paul (2016). "Climate Change and Modern Human Occupation of the Sahara from MIS 6-2". Africa from MIS 6-2. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Africa from MIS 6-2. pp. 103–122. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_6. ISBN 978-94-017-7519-9. S2CID 131383927.

[El-Shenawy-3] El-Shenawy, Mohammed I.; et al. (2018). "Speleothem evidence for the greening of the Sahara and its implications for the early human dispersal out of sub-Saharan Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews. 188: 67–76. Bibcode:2018QSRv..188...67E. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.03.016. S2CID 134694090.

[Scheele-4] Scheele, Judith (Aug 2016). Crossroads Regions: The Sahara. Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935369.013.18. ISBN 978-0-19-993536-9.

[Wippel-5] Wippel, Steffen (2020). "The Sahara as a Bridge, Not a Barrier: An Essay and Book Review on Recent Transregional Perspectives". Neue Politische Literatur. 65 (3): 449–472. doi:10.1007/s42520-020-00318-y. S2CID 224855920.

[Bergström-6] Bergström A, Stringer C, Hajdinjak M, Scerri EM, Skoglund P (February 2021). "Origins of modern human ancestry". Nature. 590 (7845): 229–237. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..229B. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. S2CID 231883210.

[Scerri-7] Scerri, Eleanor (26 October 2017). "The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137. ISBN 9780190277734. OCLC 1013546425. S2CID 133758803.

[Jeong-8] Jeong, Choongwon (2020). "Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study: Beyond Human Migration in and Around Europe". The Handbook of Mummy Studies. Springer. pp. 1–16. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-1614-6_10-1. ISBN 978-981-15-1614-6. OCLC 1182512815. S2CID 226555687.

[RSP-9] González-Fortes, G.; et al. (2019). "A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1895): 20182288. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2288. PMC 6364581. PMID 30963949. S2CID 104296971.

[Olalde-10] Olalde, Iñigo; et al. (March 27, 2019). "Supplementary Materials for The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432): 1230–1234. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1230O. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. PMC 6436108. PMID 30872528. S2CID 78094214.

[Olalde_II-11] Olalde, Iñigo; et al. (March 27, 2019). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432). Table S1. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1230O. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. hdl:10261/207967. PMC 6436108. PMID 30872528. S2CID 78094214.

[Batini-12] Batini, Chiara; et al. (September 2011). "Supplementary Data: Signatures of the Preagricultural Peopling Processes in Sub-Saharan Africa as Revealed by the Phylogeography of Early Y Chromosome Lineages". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28 (9): 2603–2613. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr089. hdl:10400.13/4486. ISSN 0737-4038. OCLC 748733133. PMID 21478374. S2CID 11190055.

[Haber-13] Haber, Marc; et al. (August 2019). "A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa". Genetics. 212 (4): 1421–1428. doi:10.1534/genetics.119.302368. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMC 6707464. PMID 31196864. S2CID 189817793.

[Shriner-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (April 2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics. 102 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. ISSN 0002-9297. OCLC 7353789016. PMC 5985360. PMID 29526279.

[Trombetta-15] Trombetta, Beniamino; et al. (June 2015). "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (7): 1940–1950. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv118. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMC 4524485. PMID 26108492.

[Sá-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Sá, Luísa; et al. (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMC 9408831. PMID 36012483. S2CID 251653686.

[Miller-17] Miller, Eleanor F.; et al. (August 2018). "Global demographic history of human populations inferred from whole mitochondrial genomes". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (8): 180543. Bibcode:2018RSOS....580543M. doi:10.1098/rsos.180543. OCLC 8582185081. PMC 6124094. PMID 30225046. S2CID 52289534.

[Frigi-18] Frigi, Sabeh; et al. (August 2010). "Ancient local evolution of African mtDNA haplogroups in Tunisian Berber populations". Human Biology. 82 (4): 367–384. doi:10.3378/027.082.0402. ISSN 0018-7143. JSTOR 41466688. OCLC 4668535228. PMID 21082907. S2CID 27594333.

[Soares-19] Podgorná, Eliška; et al. (November 2013). "The genetic impact of the lake chad basin population in North Africa as documented by mitochondrial diversity and internal variation of the L3e5 haplogroup". Annals of Human Genetics. 77 (6): 513–523. doi:10.1111/ahg.12040. ISSN 0003-4800. OCLC 6998015647. PMID 25069842. S2CID 24672148.

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Genetic history of West Africa

Archaic human DNA

Ancient DNA

Y-Chromosomal DNA

Mitochondrial DNA

Autosomal DNA

Medical DNA

Pediculus

Sickle Cell

Schistosomes

Thalassemia

Domesticated animal DNA

References

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